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Spain
Part Three
Restoration
of the Monarchy
The government was determined not to repeat the errors of
earlier years. The new constitution of 1876 was more flexibly
applied than earlier documents; Conservative and Liberal parties
alternated in office, and the court and the army stopped
interfering in politics. Under the new conditions, the Carlist
(1876) and Cuban (1878) insurrections were soon defeated, and
for two decades Spain enjoyed greater political stability and
economic prosperity than it had known since the 18th century. In
1895 another revolt began in Cuba. Much larger in scale than the
1868-1878 uprising, it was supported by the United States and
led, in 1898, to the Spanish-American War. Badly defeated, Spain
withdrew from Cuba and ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the
Philippine Islands to the United States.
After this defeat, anti-dynastic movements became more powerful.
Republican parties re-emerged; a large anarchist movement took
root among farm labourers in Andalusia and industrial workers in
Barcelona; a small but solid socialist movement appeared in
factories and mines in the Basque region and Asturias; and
regionalist sentiments in Catalonia grew into demands for
autonomy. Conflict also arose within the dynastic parties; after
Conservative politician Antonio Maura took office in 1907, he
alienated the Liberals by his imperious policies. In 1909 Maura
tried to reinforce Spain�s military expedition against Morocco
with worker conscripts from Barcelona, Spain�s most volatile
city. This sparked a bloody rebellion that destroyed Maura�s
career and deepened class antagonisms. A Liberal ministry under
Jos� Canalejas y M�ndez replaced Maura, but its reform
programme was cut short when Canalejas was assassinated in
November 1912.
World
War I
Despite many pressures to become involved in World War I, Spain
remained neutral, and the nation experienced an economic boom.
Its industries, mines, and farms sold unprecedented quantities
of their products abroad at record prices. At the same time,
inflation arose and workers increased their demands for better
wages and working conditions. Army personnel, upset over
inadequate earnings and other grievances, formed military juntas
to press their demands on the state.
In Catalonia, regionalists agitated for home rule. Republican
parties also gathered force throughout Spain. Beginning in 1917,
various movements, such as Syndicalism created crisis
conditions. Demonstrations in Barcelona and other cities
degenerated into urban terrorism by the anarcho-syndicalists.
The crisis was exacerbated after 1919 by a struggle for
independence in the Spanish sector of Morocco. Ruinously
expensive, the Moroccan war became particularly unpopular when
the rebels badly defeated Spanish forces at Anual in July 1921.
Primo
de Rivera�s Dictatorship
In September 1923 General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a military
coup that gave vent to the widespread disillusionment with the
parliamentary regime. Rather than resist, King Alfonso XIII
accepted the coup and made Primo de Rivera head of the
government. The Cortes was dissolved, and a military directorate
took charge. Although there were few arrests and little police
or army brutality, political parties were banned and Catalonia
lost the few home-rule privileges it had acquired. Socialist
trade unions continued to operate, however, and Primo de Rivera
insisted that his dictatorship was only a temporary measure.
One of his main achievements was the conclusion, with French
help, of the costly Moroccan war in 1926. Economic development
became the chief concern of the new civilian government he had
appointed. An extensive road network was built, and major
irrigation works were undertaken. Opposition to his
administration increased in 1928-1929, in part because of his
extravagant fiscal policies. Alfonso accepted Primo de Rivera�s
resignation in January 1930, but the onus attached to the
dictatorship had weakened the Crown. Even Conservative
politicians no longer enthusiastically supported the monarchy;
Alfonso had betrayed them by accepting dictatorial rule. The
socialist, anarcho-syndicalist, and Catalan regionalist
movements began to cooperate with the Republicans, as did
numerous former monarchists and army officers.
Efforts to overthrow the monarchy by force in December 1930
failed, but municipal elections in April 1931 gave such
overwhelming majorities to Republican candidates in urban areas
that Alfonso left Spain. The second Spanish republic was
proclaimed at once, with Niceto Alcal� Zamora y Torres as
President.
Second
Spanish Republic
The new republic had far wider support than its predecessor of
1873-1874, but some of its early adherents expected it to be
conservative, while others wanted revolutionary change.
Unfortunately, the republic came into being at a time not only
of deepening worldwide economic depression, but also of intense
ideological conflict throughout Europe. At first, a coalition of
left-wing Republican parties and the Socialists, headed by
Manuel Aza�a, gave the republic a progressive tone. Falsified
elections and other corrupt practices of the monarchy were
ended, women gained the right to vote, Catalonia was granted
autonomy, and the principle of home rule was extended to the
Basque provinces.
Major social reforms were instituted, taxation became more
equitable, and in 1932 a land-reform effort began to
redistribute the large estates in southern Spain to the
peasantry. A large-scale programme of irrigation and other
public works was undertaken. Education was secularized, the
Jesuit order was dissolved, and all church-state ties were
ended. So ambitious a programme was difficult to carry out, and
the process alienated many groups that had at first accepted the
republic. Aza�a�s coalition began to crumble in 1933.
Moderates saw the pace of social reform as too rapid; Socialists
considered it indecisive. Opposition also increased among Roman
Catholics, who resented Republican anti-clericism, and radicals,
who wanted immediate social revolution.
In the elections of November 1933 right-wing and centre-right
parties won a majority. The result was a partial revival of
right-wing power, modification of the anti-clerical measures,
and a weakening of land reform and other social legislation.
Leftist forces reacted strongly against these changes. The
tension exploded in October 1934, when a Socialist-led workers�
insurrection swept Asturias, and Catalonia proclaimed its
independence from Madrid. After two weeks of savage fighting,
the Asturian revolt was crushed. A further shift to the right
then occurred, but only negative policies were pursued; the
governing coalition fell apart in late 1935.
A new leftist coalition, the Popular Front, scored a narrow
victory in the elections of February 1936. This coalition, also
headed by Aza�a, was less moderate than the previous one
because the Socialists had become more radical and it now
included the Communists. The leftist reform legislation was
restored, and Aza�a applied it with great vigour. Tension
mounted as street battles between rival groups spread, peasants
seized land, and strikes swept Spain. A conspiracy to overthrow
the government took shape under General Emilio Mola, and by
early July it had gained the support of thousands of military
officers.
The
Spanish Civil War
On July 18, 1936, a military revolt against the government
began, but it was soon defeated in Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia,
and several other eastern and northern cities. Thus, the country
was divided between a rebel-held or Nationalist zone, generally
in the agricultural areas, and a Republican or Loyalist zone,
encompassing most industrial and other urban areas. A long civil
war ensued. At first the rebel forces made great advances,
reaching the outskirts of Madrid in November. The government,
expecting the capital to fall, fled to Valencia. In a series of
epic battles Madrid held firm, enabling the Loyalists to go on
fighting.
Both sides soon received help from abroad. Fascist Italy and
Nazi Germany sent troops, arms and aircraft to aid the
Nationalists. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
furnished military equipment and advisers to the Loyalists, who
were also aided by the International Brigades, made up of
idealistic volunteers from Europe and the Americas. Britain and
France remained neutral.
The Nationalists displayed great unity and soon found a strong
leader in General Francisco Franco. The Loyalists were more
divided. Their forces included moderate and extreme Socialists,
Catalan and Basque regionalists, and Communists, whose power
rapidly expanded because of their organizational skills and
Soviet aid. The Republican leader for most of the war was Juan
Negrin, a moderate Socialist.
Following their failure at Madrid, Nationalist forces launched a
difficult campaign (April-October 1937) to conquer the Basque
Country, Asturias, and other industrial regions of northern
Spain. The infamous German bombing of Guernica occurred during
this campaign. The Loyalists began a counter-offensive in
December at Teruel. Initially successful, it was beaten back by
February 1938. The Nationalists then began an advance that
reached the Mediterranean by mid-April, splitting the Republican
zone in two. The Loyalists attacked Franco�s armies from the
rear at the Ebro River, stopping the insurgent drive towards
Valencia for several months; weakened by battle, however, they
were unable to capitalize on their success. After the Munich
Pact they could no longer realistically hope for British or
French intervention on their behalf. When the insurgents resumed
their offensive in December, the Loyalists retreated towards
Barcelona, which fell on January 26, 1939. Deeply divided and
utterly exhausted, they were incapable of further resistance.
Madrid fell on March 28, and the civil war ended on April 1.
The
Franco Dictatorship
The savage war was followed by an unusually vindictive peace.
Franco made no attempt at national reconciliation; Loyalists
were seen as "reds" who had been
"anti-Spain". Hundreds of thousands were imprisoned,
and perhaps 37,000 were executed during the first four years
after the war. The Spanish people suffered greatly because of
wartime damage and economic dislocation. Most of the Republican
legislation favouring workers and peasants was immediately
revoked.
The main political forces of this period were the army, the
Church (which had developed close ties with Franco during the
war), and the Falange, the small Spanish Fascist party that
Franco had converted into an official state party in 1937. The
army and the Falange often clashed, and during the early years
of World War II, when Nazi Germany seemed unbeatable, the
Falange tried to use its ideological affinity with the Axis
Powers to make itself dominant. By 1942, however, Franco had
achieved complete control over both the army and the Falange.
His strong leadership was felt also in foreign affairs. Although
he sympathized with the Axis Powers and was indebted to them for
their help during the civil war, Franco resisted the pressures
of German chancellor Adolf Hitler to enter the world war.
A cautious, pragmatic ruler, Franco shifted policy as the Allies
began winning the war. Imprisonments dropped sharply, and
executions practically ceased after 1943. The role played by the
Falange was diminished, and some of the Fascist symbolism used
by the regime was dropped. In 1947 Spain was declared a
monarchy, although no king could assume the throne unless Franco
died, was incapacitated, or decided to step down in his favour.
The reform measures did not spare Franco from the Allies�
wrath in the years after the war. From 1946 to 1950 the United
Nations (UN) ostracized his regime, and many countries cut off
diplomatic and other relations with Spain. With the complicity
of France, guerrilla warfare revived in northern Spain. In
addition, a severe drought aggravated the misery and hunger that
Spaniards had been enduring since 1939.
The
Re-Emergence of Spain
With the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, Franco began
to be seen as an important ally against communism. The UN ban
was lifted in November, US banks made loans to Spain, and the
papacy openly recognized the regime�s legitimacy. In September
1953 the United States gave Spain important military and
economic aid in return for the right to use several Spanish air
and naval bases. Finally, in December 1955, Spain was admitted
to the UN. The origins of Franco�s dictatorship were not
completely forgotten; many European nations remained unfriendly,
and Spain was refused membership of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). Still, open hostility ended, and Spain was
again allowed to function within the international arena.
The regime also underwent gradual normalization at home.
Agricultural and industrial production returned to pre-civil war
levels in 1952. A crisis marked by student agitation and labour
unrest in 1955-1956 led first to a further diminution of
Falangist power and then, in February 1957, to a major cabinet
reorganization that increased business and workers�
representation. Hundreds of restrictive state controls over
business were dropped as Spain attempted to integrate itself
into the world economy. Labour relations also were eased after
strikes by coal miners in March 1958 led the regime to grant
workers the right to negotiate directly with employers on wages
and working conditions. The great irrigation projects started
earlier and continued by Franco began to bear fruit in the late
1950s.
The possibility that these positive domestic trends might be
upset by decolonization struggles abroad was avoided when the
regime disengaged itself from Spanish Morocco in 1958. The
decade culminated in the stabilization plan of 1959. Severe
austerity measures brought hardships to workers and many others,
but they succeeded in controlling the Spanish economy.
The
Economic Miracle
From 1961 on, unprecedented socio-economic change occurred. The
economy boomed because of rapid industrial growth and a
substantial rise in tourism, as well as foreign investment in
Spain and money sent home by Spanish workers abroad. Owing to a
growing labour shortage, wages increased, unofficial trade
unions were organized, and agriculture was mechanized to avoid
high labour costs. Greater worker prosperity brought rapid
social change: there was massive migration from rural to urban
areas; secondary and university education expanded enormously;
and the people became more secularized and sophisticated as
their exposure to contemporary ways of life increased. The
Franco regime, fundamentally pragmatic and technologically
oriented after 1957, provided the framework within which growth
could occur. The massive housing programme sponsored by the
government greatly eased the social costs of Spain�s
transition from a rural to an urban society.
Although these socio-economic changes were accompanied by some
political liberalization, the dictatorship continued to be
oppressive. In 1962, reacting to strikes in Asturias and a
meeting of opposition forces in Munich, Franco instituted
martial law. In 1970 serious repression again threatened when
several members of a new Basque separatist organization, Euzkadi
ta Azkatasuna ("Basque Homeland and Freedom"; ETA),
were sentenced to death in trials held in Burgos.
In part because of international pressure, the government backed
down in these crises. Martial law was soon lifted, and the ETA
death sentences were commuted. Liberalization was also expressed
in a series of fundamental laws passed between 1966 and 1969.
One law increased freedom of the press; another made the Cortes
somewhat more representative and augmented its powers; a third
recognized Spain�s official status as a monarchy by naming
Juan Carlos, grandson of Alfonso XIII, as successor to the
throne after Franco�s death. The gradual liberalization was
also evident abroad: the West African colony of Spanish Guinea
was granted independence as Equatorial Guinea in 1968; seven
years later the government agreed to cede Spanish Sahara to
Morocco and Mauritania.
Last
Years of Franco�s Regime
Liberalization and prosperity did not end social and political
unrest. Although walkouts remained illegal, many strikes
occurred in Spain during the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Students protested against overcrowded facilities and government
control. Catalan regionalists again became politically active.
By far the most important conflict arose in the Basque Country,
where the ETA launched terrorist attacks against the police and
army. The government responded with indiscriminate repression,
and a vicious cycle of violence and counterviolence gripped the
Basque provinces from 1969 to 1975.
This contrasted sharply with the relatively infrequent violence,
by either the government or its opponents, elsewhere in Spain.
The regime was severely shaken in 1973 when Premier Luis Carrero
Blanco was assassinated by the ETA. Instead of reverting to
massive repression, however, the new premier, Carlos Arias
Navarro, announced further liberalization measures, including
plans for the formation of political associations, which had
been forbidden since 1939. These moves sparked a revolt by
hard-core Falangists, who sought a return to a strong
dictatorship. For a brief period it seemed they might succeed.
Arias�s attempted reforms were sabotaged. A law was passed
requiring the death penalty for terrorists who killed police,
and five were executed in September 1975. The possibility of
further moves to the right ended when Franco died on November
20, 1975.
The
Restoration of Democracy
Franco�s death and the succession of King Juan Carlos I were
followed by several months of political ambiguity. The new king
favoured full democratization, but many powerful interests were
against change. On the other hand, reform measures that had been
daring under the dictatorship now seemed insufficient to most
people. The deadlock was broken in July 1976 when Navarro
resigned at the request of Juan Carlos, who appointed Adolfo
Su�rez Gonz�lez as the new premier.
Su�rez
A moderate Falangist, Su�rez became chief architect of Spain�s
successful transition to democracy. Su�rez convinced the Cortes
to annul the restrictive legislation Franco had left behind and
to accept the Political Reform Law, which was approved by
referendum in December 1976. Despite strong army objections, in
April 1977 he legalized the Communist Party. In June the first
democratic elections in four decades reaffirmed his centrist
policies. His newly formed party, the Union of the Democratic
Centre (UDC), won 34 per cent of the vote, with the Socialists a
close second. Hardly any votes went to extremists, either of the
left or right.
In 1978 the Cortes passed a new democratic constitution,
providing for a constitutional monarchy, freedom for political
parties, and autonomy for Spain�s "nationalities and
regions". The constitution was enthusiastically accepted by
most sectors of society, but the Basque provinces still resented
being tied to Spain and supported the ETA, which stepped up its
terrorist activities. Meanwhile, Catalans pushed for greater
control over local affairs, and demanded greater language
rights. The use of Catalan and nationalist sentiments increased
in and around Barcelona. The Galicians consistently distanced
themselves from Madrid, though ethno-regionalism is weaker in
Galicia than in either Catalonia or Basque Country.
Su�rez governed through consensus, consulting all non-extremist
parties when formulating basic policy. Catalonia and the Basque
Country were granted home rule, and their languages were
officially recognized. The constitution extended similar
privileges to 15 other regions. Thus, the movement towards
political centralization begun by Ferdinand and Isabella some
500 years earlier was reversed, and a "Spain of autonomous
communities" was created.
Su�rez, brilliantly successful under crisis conditions, proved
less effective as a day-to-day administrator, and troubles
appeared after the 1979 elections. The rightist segments of the
UDC, hitherto subdued, reasserted themselves. His policy of
consensus with other parties broke down. The economy was
deteriorating badly. In January 1981, Su�rez resigned, and was
succeeded by Deputy Prime Minister Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo.
Attempted
Coup
The long-simmering resentment in military circles against rapid
change produced dangerous conspiracies, and on February 23,
1981, armed civil guards invaded the Cortes in an attempt to
seize power. King Juan Carlos narrowly foiled the coup by
convincing most of the military units to remain loyal to the
government. Calvo Sotelo formed a new Council of Ministers, and
during his term dealt with numerous difficult issues, including
his decision to enter Spain in NATO in 1982. Continued grumbling
within the armed forces, political disputes, and a precarious
economy left Spain less than stable for many months.
Shortly before the October 1982 elections, a plot by right-wing
extremists to stage a military coup was discovered. Four
military leaders were arrested and three imprisoned. The
elections were won decisively by the Socialist Workers Party,
led by Felipe Gonz�lez M�rquez. Under Gonz�lez, the party had
begun to shed its Marxist principles in 1979, and this process
was completed during its first years in office. From November
1984 to the end of 1985, protests and demonstrations were staged
against education reform, government restructuring policies,
membership of NATO, unemployment, and social security reforms.
Entry
into the EU
A crucial referendum in 1986 enabled Spain to remain in NATO.
Socialist policies that favoured business, a worldwide economic
recovery, and Spain�s entry into the European Union in 1986
combined to initiate a major economic revival. In addition, the
increasingly dynamic role Spain played in European affairs and
its cultural blossoming in numerous fields gave rise to greater
self-confidence than Spaniards had known since the 18th century.
Spain and the United States renewed their bilateral defence
agreement in 1988, allowing the continued use of bases in Spain
by the United States for an additional eight years. The question
of sovereignty of the British dependent territory of Gibraltar
remained an unresolved issue between the United Kingdom and
Spain. Gradual deregulation of the economy, begun in 1975,
continued into the 1990s. The monopolistic rights of many
state-owned companies were eliminated, trade union laws relaxed,
and restrictions loosened on establishing new companies.
Although the Socialist Workers Party and Gonz�lez were returned
to office in the elections of 1986 and 1989, industrial workers
now became the most dissatisfied sector of society because of
high inflation and unemployment. Since 1990 there have been
several corruption scandals involving government officials. Even
so, the mood of the Spanish people was improved in 1992 as the
Olympic Games were held in Barcelona and a World Fair was held
in Seville to commemorate the 500th anniversary of Columbus�s
first voyage to America. In the 1993 elections, Gonz�lez
remained Prime Minister as head of a coalition government. The
Socialists, however, failed to get a majority, forcing Gonz�lez
into a more vulnerable political position.
ETA
The issue of ethno-regionalism continued to be an important
concern. More than 800 people died as a result of ETA violence
between 1968 and 1993. By January 1994, a growing peace movement
helped to sway public opinion against ETA�s violent tactics,
and prospects for productive negotiations with the central
government seemed promising. In February 1994, Jordi Pujol,
leader of Catalonia�s main national party, Catalonia
Convergencia i Uni� (CiU), presented demands for increased
Catalonian self-government to Prime Minister Gonz�lez, focusing
on control of transport services and police forces. However,
popular sentiment in both Catalonia and the Basque provinces
seemed to favour greater autonomy but not complete independence
from Spain.
In recent years, concerns over Spain�s environmental problems
have grown. The country experienced increased air-pollution
problems in Madrid and along the north-east coast, water
pollution in agricultural and coastal areas, and soil erosion.
Controversies arose over rapid development along the
Mediterranean coast and threats to scenic attractions.Gonz�lez
and the Socialists fell from power after the general election of
March 1996, ending 13 years of Socialist rule. The conservative
Popular Party, led by Jos� Maria Aznar, formed a new government
with the support of smaller, regional parties.
Copyright
� 2000, J. Lee. All rights reserved. Text, graphics, and HTML
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