(in Spanish, Espa�a), constitutional monarchy in south-west Europe, occupying the greater part of the Iberian Peninsula, and bounded on the north by the Bay of Biscay, France, and Andorra; on the east by the Mediterranean Sea; on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; and on the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean.
The British dependency of Gibraltar is situated at the southern extremity of Spain. The Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa are governed as provinces of Spain. Also, Spain administers two small exclaves in Morocco�Ceuta and Melilla�as well as three island groups near Africa�Pe��n de V�lez de la Gomera and the Alhucemas and Chafarinas islands. The area of Spain, including the African and insular territories, is 504,782 sq km (194,897 sq mi). Madrid is the capital and largest city.

Land and Resources
Spain occupies about 85 per cent of the Iberian Peninsula and is bounded by water for about 88 per cent of its periphery; its Mediterranean coast is about 1,660 km (1,030 mi) long, and its Atlantic coast is about 710 km (440 mi) long. The long, unbroken mountain chain of the Pyrenees, extending about 435 km (270 mi) from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean Sea, forms the border with France on the north; in the extreme south the Strait of Gibraltar, less than 13 km (8 mi) wide at its narrowest extent, separates Spain from Africa.
The most important topographical feature of Spain is the great, almost treeless, central plateau, called the Meseta, sloping generally downwards from north to south and from east to west, and with an average elevation of about 610 m (2,000 ft) above sea level. The tableland is divided into northern and southern sections by irregular mountain ranges, or sierras, of which the most important are the Sierra de Guadarrama, the Sierra de Gredos, and the Montes de Toledo. Between many of the mountains are narrow valleys, drained by rapid rivers. The coastal plain is narrow, rarely as much as 32 km (20 mi) wide and, in many areas, broken by mountains that descend to the sea to form rocky headlands, particularly along the Mediterranean coast, where the sole excellent harbour is Barcelona. The north-western coastal area has several good harbours, particularly along the Galician coast.
The six principal mountain chains have elevations ranging up to more than 3,353 m (11,000 ft). The highest peaks are the Pico de Aneto (3,404 m/11,168 ft) in the Pyrenees, and Mulhac�n (3,478 m/11,411 ft) in the Sierra Nevada in southern Spain. The highest point in Spain and its insular territories is Pico de Teide 3,718 m (12,198 ft) on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The lowest point is sea level along the coast.
The principal rivers of Spain flow west and south to the Atlantic Ocean, generally along deep, rocky courses through the mountain valleys. The Douro, Mi�o, Tagus, and Guadiana rivers rise in Spain and flow through Portugal to the Atlantic. The Guadalquivir, flowing through a fertile plain in the south, is the deepest river in Spain and the only one navigable for any extent. The Ebro, in north-east Spain, flows into the Mediterranean Sea, and is navigable by small craft for part of its course. Most Spanish streams are too small for interior navigation, and, with courses below the general ground level, are of little use for irrigation. The rivers are, however, a good source of power.

Climate
The climate of Spain is mainly Mediterranean. It is marked by variations of temperature and, except in the north, generally insufficient rainfall. The variegated physical features of the country ensure pronounced climatic differences. The climate is most equable along the Biscayan and Atlantic coasts, which are generally damp and cool. The central plateau has summers so arid that nearly all the streams dry up, the earth parches, and drought is common.
Most of Spain receives less than 610 mm (24 in) of precipitation per year; the northern mountains get considerably more moisture. Around Madrid, winter cold is sufficient to freeze surrounding streams, while summer temperatures rise as high as 41.7� C (107� F). By contrast the southern Mediterranean coast has a sub-tropical climate. M�laga, in the extreme south, has an average winter temperature of 13.9� C (57� F).

Natural Resources
The most valuable natural resource of Spain is the soil. The country also has many mineral resources, including coal, petroleum, cobalt, copper, iron ore, lead, lignite, manganese, mercury, potash, salt, silver, sulphur, tin, and zinc.

Plants and Animals
Only a small part of Spain is wooded, and forests are located mainly on mountain slopes, particularly in the north-west. A common Spanish tree is the evergreen oak. Cork oak, from which the bark may be stripped every ten years, is abundant, growing chiefly as second growth on timbered land. Poplar trees are grown throughout the country and the cultivation of olive trees is a major agricultural activity. Other Spanish trees include the elm, beech, and chestnut. Shrubs and herbs are the common natural vegetation on the central plateau. Grapevines flourish in the arid soil. Esparto grass, used for making paper and various fibre products, grows abundantly in both the wild and cultivated state. Sugar cane, oranges, lemons, figs, almonds, and chestnuts are grown on the Mediterranean coast.
The Spanish fauna includes the wolf, lynx, wildcat, fox, wild boar, wild goat, deer, and hare. Among the more famous domesticated animals are the bulls bred near Seville and Salamanca for bullfighting, the Spanish national sport. Birdlife is abundant, with varieties of birds of prey. Insect life abounds. Mountain streams and lakes teem with such fish as barbel, tench, and trout.

Soils
Although Spanish soils need careful irrigation and cultivation, they are a rich and valuable resource. Semi-arid chestnut-brown soils cover the central plateau, and red Mediterranean soils cover the southern area and the north-eastern coastal region. A grey desert soil, often saline, is found in the south-east. The forest of northern Spain has grey-brown forest soils, and the forest in the Cantabrian Mountains has leached podzolic soils.

Population
The Spanish people are essentially a mixture of the indigenous peoples of the Iberian Peninsula with the successive peoples who conquered the peninsula and occupied it for extended periods. These added ethnologic elements include the Romans, a Mediterranean people, and the Suevi, Vandals, Visigoths (see Goths), and Teutonic peoples. Semitic elements are also present. Several regions in Spain have kept a separate identity, culturally and linguistically. These include the Basques, who number about 2.1 million and live chiefly around the Bay of Biscay; the Galicians (about 2.5 million), who live in north-western Spain; and the Catalans of eastern and north-eastern Spain. The nomadic Spanish Gypsies, who are also called Gitanos, are a separate ethnic group.

Population Characteristics
Spain has a population of 39,181,114 (1996 official estimate). The estimate for 1995 was 39,188,000; the overall density is about 78 people per sq km (201 per sq mi). Spain is increasingly urban with more than three-quarters of the population living in towns and cities.

Political Divisions
Spain comprises 50 provinces in 17 autonomous regions: Andalusia, Arag�n, Asturias, Balearic Islands, Basque Country (Pa�s Vasco), Canary Islands, Cantabria, Castile-La Mancha, Castile-Le�n, Catalonia, Estremadura, Galicia, La Rioja, Madrid, Murcia, Navarra, and Valencia.

Principal Cities
The capital and largest city is Madrid (population, 1991, 3,010,492), also the capital of Madrid autonomous region; the second-largest city, chief port, and commercial centre is Barcelona (1,643,542), capital of Barcelona province and Catalonia region. Other important cities include Valencia (752,909), capital of Valencia province and Valencia region, a manufacturing and rail centre; Seville (683,028), capital of Seville province and Andalusia region, a cultural centre; Saragossa (594,394), capital of Saragossa province and Arag�n region, another industrial centre; and Bilbao (369,839), a busy port.

Religion
Roman Catholicism is professed by about 97 per cent of Spaniards. The country is divided into 11 metropolitan and more than 50 suffragan sees. Formerly, Roman Catholicism was the established church, but the 1978 constitution decreed that Spain shall have no state religion. There are small communities of Protestants, Jews, and Muslims.

Language
Most of the people of Spain speak Castilian Spanish. In addition, Basque (Euskara, a pre-Indo-European language) is spoken in the north, Catalan is spoken in the north-east, and Galician (Gallego, akin to Portuguese) is spoken in the north-west. See Spanish Language.

Education
The golden age of Spanish education occurred during the Middle Ages, when the Moors, Christians, and Jews established strong inter-religious centres of higher education in C�rdoba, Granada, and Toledo. The University of Salamanca (1218) served as a model for the universities of Latin America from the 16th century on, thereby extending the international influence of Spanish education. During the 16th century the University of Alcal� (founded in Alcal� de Henares in 1510 and moved to Madrid as the University of Madrid in 1836) was famous for its multilingual, parallel translations of the Bible. Important Spanish educators of that period include Juan de Huarte, a pioneer in the application of psychology to education; the humanist and philosopher Juan Luis Vives, who interpreted new ideas on education and, in particular, advocated the education of women; and St Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus.
Others who made important contributions to education in the 19th and 20th century include Francisco Giner de los Rios, who sought reforms in higher education and the schooling of women; Francisco Ferrer Guardia, the nationalistic educator who advocated reform and democratization of education; and the philosopher Jos� Ortega y Gasset, whose writings on the mission of the university have been translated into several languages. The Royal Spanish Academy (founded 1713) and the Royal Academy of History (1738) are well known for scholarly publications.

Elementary and Secondary Schools
Education in Spain is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 16. The school system consists of pre-primary schools (for children 3 to 5 years old), primary (6 to 11), and secondary (ages 12 to 16, in 2 two-year cycles). Students may then take either a vocational training course for one or two years, or the two-year Bachillerato course in preparation for university entrance. The university system has three cycles. The first, leading to the degree of Diplomatura, lasts for three years. The second cycle lasts for two or three years and leads to the degree of Licenciatura. Students earning the degree of Doctor must complete the two-year third cycle and write a thesis.
In 1994-1995 Spain�s pre-primary schools were attended by approximately 1 million pupils, primary schools by about 4 million, secondary, vocational, and technical schools by about 2.7 million students. The country has 96 per cent adult literacy.

Higher Education
Spanish institutions of higher education enrolled some 1,256,113 students in 1994. The major universities of Spain include the University of Madrid, the Polytechnic University of Madrid (1971), the University of Barcelona (1450), the University of Granada (1526), the University of Salamanca, the University of Seville (1502), and the University of Valencia (1510).

Culture
Any consideration of Spanish culture must stress the tremendous importance of religion in the history of the country and in the life of the individual. An index of the influence of Roman Catholicism is provided by the fervent mystical element in the art and literature of Spain, the impressive list of its saints, and the large number of religious congregations and orders. The Catholic marriage is the basis of the family, which in turn is the foundation of Spanish society.
Fiestas (festivals) are an outstanding feature of Spanish life. They usually begin with a high mass followed by a solemn procession in which venerated images are carried on the shoulders of the participants. Music, dancing, poetry, and singing often enliven these colourful occasions. The fiesta at Valencia, the April fair in Seville, and the San Ferm�n fiesta at Pamplona are several of the more important ones. In contrast, the feast of Corpus Christi in Toledo and Granada and the Holy Week observances in Valladolid, Zamora, and Cuenca are solemn affairs. The bullfight, so important a part of Spanish tradition, has been called a fiesta brava. It is far more than a mere spectator sport; fans applaud not only the bravery of the toreros but their dexterity and artistry as well.

Painting
A number of great painters have lived and worked in Spain. Among the most famous are El Greco, Diego Vel�zquez, Francisco Goya, Salvador Dal�, and Pablo Picasso, one of the most prolific artists in history and a major figure in 20th-century art.

Libraries and Museums
The National Library in Madrid, founded in 1712 as the Royal Library, is the largest in Spain; it contains more than 4 million bound volumes. Rare books, maps, prints, and the magnificent Sala de Cervantes, devoted to the writings of the great Spanish novelist Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, are among the special collections of the library. The Library of the Royal Palace (1760) in Madrid has many rare editions from the 16th century as well as fine collections of manuscripts, engravings, and music. One of the most complete libraries in Spain is the Madrid University Library, which was founded in 1341; it contains more than 800,000 bound volumes and more than 270,000 pamphlets. The Escorial Library near Madrid is known for its collection of rare books. The Archives and Library of the Cathedral Chapter in Toledo are famous for its collection of some 3,000 manuscripts from the 8th and 9th centuries and more than 10,000 documents of the 11th century.
One of the greatest art collections in the world is in the National Museum of Paintings and Sculpture (known as the Prado) in Madrid. The collection is particularly rich in works by El Greco, Vel�zquez, the Spanish painter Bartolom� Est�ban Murillo, and Goya; by the Italian painters Sandro Botticelli and Titian; and by Rembrandt. The National Museum of Modern Art in Madrid specializes in Spanish painting after 1800.
Spanish pottery, brocades, tapestries, and ivory carvings are in the National Archaeological Museum in Madrid, which houses also the most important library on archaeology in the country. The National Ethnological Museum in Madrid contains objects from former Spanish possessions, including Equatorial Guinea, the Philippines, and Bolivia. Other museums in Madrid include the Natural Science Museum and the Museum of the Spanish People. Situated in Barcelona are the Maritime Museum and the Archaeological Museum, which has a large collection of prehistoric, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Visigothic art.

Music
Spanish music has a vitality and a rhythm that reflect the many influences on the culture by the Christians and the Moors. The zarzuela, a form of opera, was introduced in the 17th century. A leading keyboard composer during the 18th century was Antonio Soler, and Enrique Granados and Manuel de Falla continued the tradition in the 20th century. Famous Spanish performers of the 20th century include the guitarist Andr�s Segovia and cellist Pablo Casals. Popular Spanish instruments include the guitar, tambourine, castanets, and the gaita, a kind of bagpipe. Spanish dance styles (each with its own music) include the bolero, the flamenco, the jota, and the fandango.

Economy
Spain has traditionally been an agricultural country and is still one of the largest farming producers in Western Europe, but since the mid-1950s industrial growth has been rapid. A series of development plans, initiated in 1964, helped the economy to expand, but in the later 1970s an economic slowdown was brought on by rising oil costs and increased imports. Subsequently, the government emphasized the development of the steel, shipbuilding, textile, and mining industries. Today, Spain has a gross domestic product around two-thirds that of the leading western European economies. Spain derives much income from tourism.
The annual budget in 1994 included revenue of about $96.8 billion and expenditure of about $122.5 billion. On January 1, 1986, Spain became a full member of the European Union (EU). In order to meet the convergence criteria specified for entry into a future EU economic and monetary union, Spain has been trying to reform the economy, in particular to reduce its budget deficit mainly through spending cuts. However, inflation, unemployment, and the public debt remained high in 1994 following severe recession in 1993, with some degree of economic recovery in 1995. In March 1995 Spain devalued the peseta by 7 per cent within the Exchange Rate Mechanism. In 1996 Spain had the highest rate of unemployment within the EU.

Agriculture
Agriculture is a mainstay of the Spanish economy, employing about 10 per cent of the work force (which totalled 11,837,000 in 1993). The main crops are wheat, barley, sugar beet, maize, potatoes, rye, oats, rice, tomatoes, and onions. The country has extensive vineyards, and citrus and olive groves. In 1994 annual production of wheat was estimated to be, in tonnes, 4.3 million; barley, 7.6 million; maize, 2.2 million; and potatoes, 4 million. Annual production of other important commodities included, in tonnes, rye, 221,000; sugar beet, 8.2 million; oranges, 2.6 million; grapes, 3.1 million; onions, 1 million; and tomatoes, 3 million.
Climatic and topographical conditions make dry farming obligatory for a large part of Spanish agriculture. The Mediterranean provinces, particularly Valencia, have irrigation systems that represent the work of many generations, and the formerly arid coastal belt has become one of the most productive areas of Spain. Combined irrigation and hydroelectric projects are found particularly in the valley of the Ebro. Large sections of Estremadura are irrigated by means of government projects on the Guadiana River. Small-farm irrigation from wells is common.
The raising of livestock, especially sheep and goats, is an important industry. In 1994 livestock on farms included about 23.8 million sheep, 18.1 million pigs, 5 million cattle, and 262,000 horses.

Forestry
The cork-oak tree is the principal forest resource of Spain, and the annual production of cork, more than 110,000 metric tons in the mid-1980s, is second only to that of Portugal. The yield of Spain�s forests is insufficient for the country�s wood-pulp and timber needs.

Fishing
The fishing industry is important to the Spanish economy. The annual catch was about 1.3 million tonnes in 1993 and consisted primarily of sardines, tuna, mussels, squid, octopus, hake, anchovies, and mackerel. In 1995 and 1996 the large number of Spanish boats fishing in British and Irish waters, many of them flying British flags of convenience, caused confrontations between British and Spanish fishermen.

Mining
The mineral wealth of Spain is considerable. In 1992 annual production included about 33 million tonnes of coal and lignite, 1.7 million tonnes of iron ore, 206,000 tonnes of zinc concentrates, 31,000 tonnes of lead, 4.9 million tonnes of gypsum, and 1 million tonnes of crude petroleum. The principal coal mines are in the north-west, near Oviedo; the chief iron-ore deposits are in the same area, around Santander and Bilbao; large mercury reserves are located in Almad�n, in south-western Spain, and copper and lead are mined in Andalusia. Other minerals produced are potash, manganese, fluorite, tin, tungsten, wolfram, bismuth, antimony, cobalt, and rock salt.

Manufacturing
Among the leading goods manufactured in Spain are textiles, iron and steel, motor vehicles, chemicals, clothing, footwear, ships, refined petroleum, and cement. Spain is one of the world�s leading wine producers, and the output in 1991 was about 2.8 million tonnes. The iron and steel industry, centred in Bilbao, Santander, Oviedo, and Avil�s, produced about 12.7 million tonnes of crude steel and 5.6 million tonnes of pig iron in 1991.

Energy
About 48 per cent of Spain�s electricity is generated in conventional thermal plants primarily using coal or refined petroleum. Hydroelectric facilities produce 17 per cent, and nuclear installations, 35 per cent. In 1993 Spain had an installed electricity-generating capacity of some 43.8 million kilowatts, and annual output was about 148 billion kilowatt-hours.

Currency and Banking
The monetary unit of Spain is the peseta (143 pesetas equal US$1; 1997), issued by the Bank of Spain (1829). The country is served by a large number of commercial banks. The principal stock exchanges are in Madrid, Barcelona, and Bilbao.

Foreign Trade
In 1995, Spain imported goods valued at about $110 billion and exported goods valued at about $85 billion. Principal imports include mineral fuels and lubricants, machinery and transport equipment, crude materials, manufactured goods, food, live animals, and chemicals. The main exports include machinery and transport equipment, food and live animals, chemicals, motor vehicles, iron and steel, and textiles and clothing. The most important trading partners of Spain are the United States, Germany, France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Portugal. Revenue from tourism, estimated at $18 billion annually, helps compensate for Spain�s chronic trade deficit.

Transport
Spain had about 331,900 km (206,243 mi) of roads and about 13.4 million passenger cars in 1993. Rail service over about 14,500 km (9,010 mi) of track is provided by both government-owned and private companies. In 1992, a high-speed railway line from Madrid to Seville began operating. There are metros in Madrid of 112 km (69 mi), Barcelona, of 72 km (45 mi), and Bilbao, of 26 km (16 mi). The government-controlled Iberia Airline operates domestic and international services. In 1993 the merchant navy had 1,151 vessels of a gross tonnage of 900,000.

Communications
About 14.2 million telephones were in service in Spain in 1993, including 335,000 mobile telephones. Television sets in use totalled about 19 million and radios, 12 million. There were a large number of independent national and regional radio stations and three national/commercial TV networks, and two regional networks broadcasting in Basque and Catalan. The country had 140 daily newspapers, with a combined daily circulation of about 4 million. Influential dailies include A.B.C., published in Madrid, and La Vanguardia, issued in Barcelona. In 1994, more than 57,000 books were published.

Labour
In 1995 the Spanish workforce comprised about 12 million people. About 2.7 million were employed in manufacturing; 1.3 million in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 7.4 million in service industries; and 1.4 million in construction. Unemployment soared as high as 15.5 per cent during 1995 (more than 2,370,000 individuals). In 1993 about 11 per cent of Spain�s workforce was unionized.

Government
In the late 1970s the government of Spain underwent a transformation from the authoritarian regime (1939-1975) of Francisco Franco to a limited monarchy with an influential parliament. A national constitution was adopted in 1978.

Executive
The head of state of Spain is a hereditary monarch, who is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. Executive power is vested in the president of the government (prime minister), who is proposed by the monarch on the parliament�s approval and is voted into office by the Congress of Deputies. Power is also vested in a cabinet, or council of ministers. There is also the Council of States, a consultative body.

Health and Welfare
The Law of Family Subsidy, enacted in 1939, provides Spain�s workers with monthly allowances proportionate to the number of children in the family; the necessary funding is collected from employers and employees. A system of old-age pensions and health and maternity benefits has been in effect since 1949. A fund derived from public collections provides for the support of the poor, nursery schools, and health clinics. More than 50 per cent of the social security budget is spent on retirement pensions; 30 per cent is spent on health services. In 1994 Spain had about 159,000 doctors and 164,400 hospital beds.

Legislature
In 1977 Spain�s unicameral Cortes (parliament) was replaced by a bicameral parliament made up of a 350-member Congress of Deputies and a Senate of 208 directly elected members and 46 special regional representatives. Deputies are popularly elected to four-year terms by universal suffrage of people aged 18 or older, under a system of proportional representation. The directly elected senators are voted to four-year terms on a regional basis. Each mainland province elects 4 senators: another 20 senators come from the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla.

Political Parties
Spain has many political parties. The two major groups in the 1989 and 1996 general elections were the Spanish Socialist Workers Party (PSOE), and the Popular Party (a conservative party that had absorbed the Christian Democrats and the Liberal Party). Other significant parties in Parliament include the Democratic and Social Centre, the United Left (a communist party), and Catalan and Basque nationalist parties. The Basque group, Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA), use terrorist methods to oppose the government. In the March 1996 elections, the Popular Party won a majority, ending 13 years of PSOE rule.

Local Government
The 1978 constitution allowed for two types of autonomous regions, each with different powers. Catalonia, the Basque provinces, and Galicia were defined as "historic nationalities" and used a simpler process to achieve autonomy. The process for other regions was slower and more complicated. While the autonomous regions have assumed substantial powers of self-government, the issue of regional versus central governmental power is still under negotiation.
Each of Spain�s 17 autonomous regions elects a unicameral legislative assembly, which selects a president from among its own members. Seven autonomous regions are composed of only one province, the other ten are formed of two or more provinces. Each of the provinces, 50 in all, has an appointed governor and an elected council. Each of the more than 8,000 municipalities is governed by a directly elected council, which elects one of its members as mayor.

Judiciary
The judicial system in Spain is governed by the General Council of Judicial Power, presided over by the President of the Supreme Court. The country�s highest tribunal is the Supreme Court of Justice, divided into 7 sections, which sits in Madrid. There are 17 territorial high courts, one in each autonomous region, 52 provincial high courts, and several lower courts handling penal, employment, and juvenile matters. The country�s other important court is the Constitutional Court, which monitors observance of the Constitution.

Defence
Spain maintains well-equipped armed services; military service of nine months is compulsory for males. Since 1989 women have been accepted into all branches of the forces. In 1996 the country had an army of 144,700, a navy of 31,900, including 7,000 marines, and an air force of 29,400. The paramilitary Guardia Civil had a strength of 72,000. The government has close defence ties with the United States, which has maintained naval and air bases in Spain. The country became a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1982, and reaffirmed that alliance in a public referendum in 1986. One provision of the referendum, however, was a reduction of US troops stationed in Spain.

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