Chapter 1: Gravity and the C-R Theory

The C-R theory has postulated a new nature of gravity. This nature of gravity is based on thought experiments which will be included and discussed further in the appendix. We have concluded that gravity behaves in an easily predictable manner, even at the edge and the inside of a Black-Hole1. This includes the new understanding of how gravitational fields outside and inside the vicinity of a Black-Hole function, and how they influence matter.

We have postulated that the true nature of gravity is caused by a significantly different mechanism than that which is currently accepted as the best explanation of gravity. Most current theories believe that hypothetical gravitational particles, called gravitons, will be interchanged. This interchange is believed to be comparable to the interchange of the W particle (the Vector Boson), which is believed to intermediate both the strong and the weak nuclear forces.

We will attempt to demonstrate that gravitons are not the cause of gravity. The curvature of space-time is what we believe causes the "effect" of gravity. This slow-down of time from the curvature results in energy being "squeezed-out of" matter somewhat like orange juice is squeezed out from an orange. Only 100% of the available energy can be extracted, just as only 100% of the available orange juice can be squeezed from an orange. Squeezing any harder, or exerting more effort will not yield more orange juice. Ditto for gravity.

This energy, which comes "out-of" any mass which is being warped or bent in a space-time continuum, causes the kinetic energy, or acceleration which we think of as "gravity". This acceleration is independent of the mass or it's density, it results strictly from the apparent slow-down of time, proportional to the amount of the warping of time.

Rejection of Gravitons

The C-R theory has chosen to reject the idea of hypothetical particles of gravity, called gravitons. Here is our conclusion, based on the results from several thought experiments, which will be covered more fully in our appendix.

Our thought experiments seem to demonstrate that, if gravity is caused by hypothetical particles called gravitons (sometimes geons), then violations of Conservation of Energy become MANDATORY and unsuitably random at the outside edge of the Black-Hole, or the Schwarzschild radius.

The Schwarzschild radius is the boundary to a Black-Hole. It is the total and complete surface area where the gravitational escape velocity of any electromagnetic particle/wave, is equal to the speed of light. This non-escapable2 gravitational trap is caused by the intense and complete curvature of the Space-time fabric.

A light at the end of the Tunnelling

Current theories which involve gravitons require that, in order to allow any gravitational force to be felt outside of the Black-Hole boundary, some mechanism must exist to allow the tunnelling of these hypothetical gravitational particles. If this tunnelling of gravitons in this case is anything less than 100% efficient, the gravitational attraction felt outside the black hole must decrease by a random, and possibly fluctuating amount. This random amount would be proportional to the efficiency of the tunnelling mechanism or process, across macroscopic distances.

There is only one other alternative, still using gravitons, which would allow conservation of energy to be true. That would require that these gravitons must tunnel out from the collapsed singularity at the exact center of the black hole. In order to uphold Conservation of Energy after the collapse, these gravitons must still be emitted outside the black hole at precisely the same rate and intensity (or frequency and energy) which they were before the gravitational collapse.

Like salmon swimming upstream, these gravitons would be required to fight their way against their own gravity through the inside of the black hole. In this volume of the space-time fabric, the escape velocity is at least equal to, if not greater than the speed of light. These hypothesized real particles must tunnel through macroscopic distances, with an efficiency EQUAL to exactly 100%. Even if the gravitons were generated at 500% of the required amount, and the coupling efficiency equals 20%, how would the black hole know how many gravitons were emitted, or how many emitted gravitons were intercepted and interacted-with.

Welcome tunnelling, to the real world

or:  A "Well-thought = Out" Experiment

Tunnelling of electrons from a "forbidden zone" is recognized as a valid phenomenon over atomic-length distances. Sub-atomic particles like electrons are allowed by the quantum mechanical theory to tunnel (i.e., sneak through) from a low energy region (a well), through a high energy region to a lower energy region. This phenomenon always takes place with less than 100% efficiency.

In the case of the escape from an atom, it could be said that the tunnelling is allowed due to the probability that at some point in time, the electron will have enough energy to pass through the forbidden energy barrier. Alternately, it could be said that there is a finite probability, measured over a finite time, that the position of the electron will be found outside the barrier. This means that given a sufficiently long time, the electron probably will tunnel through any barrier.

In this real-world example, the ease of tunnelling is facilitated when the "forbidden-barrier" is composed of real atoms. In a totally collapsed center of a conventional black hole, the "sufficient-time" option also seems to lose any validity. The notion of measurable-time is undefined when using relativistic logic on an infinitely dense singularity.

Since neither of these two possibilities involving tunnelling seems likely, we have concluded that gravity has some other underlying mechanism as a cause. Tunnelling cannot provide an adequate explanation of gravity existing outside of a black hole..

Understanding the Gravity We're Standing Over

I expect that this will be a controversial area in our theory. The clues to the behavior of gravity have been around for quite a while, but the original description of gravity by classical physics has blinded current scientists to an intriguing possibility.

It's Relatively Simple

Einstein, in his theory of Relativity, predicted the slow-down of time near a large massive body. Our "discovery" is that, gravity does not "cause" the slow-down of time near a massive body. Rather, it is the slowing-down of time, caused by the curvature or bending of the fabric of space-time, which creates gravity.

Current theories have run into brick walls because they have misunderstood the nature of gravity. An analogy to the current view of gravity would be: Imagine a light bulb, with an initial surge of electricity rushing through its filaments, turning it on. Then claim that this process causes the light switch on a wall to be flipped to the on position. In the simplest possible terms, they understand the process backwards.

Squeezing out the Truth

Awful pun: Can you Orange a demonstration?

Consider the analogy of an orange in a juice squeezer. As the orange is warped, or bent, or squeezed, the juice comes flowing out. As long as there is fluid left in the orange, extra squeezing will produce more juice. What could this possibly have to do with gravity (or did we just pick the wrong fruit)?

Imagine a singular hydrogen atom, with the electron at it's lowest allowable energy level, the "s" orbital, i.e., absolute zero. By quantum mechanics, the energy level of the electron in it's orbital of this hydrogen atom cannot be decreased by radiating away energy.

Let us now imagine that we will place the hydrogen atom (still at absolute zero) in a time squeezer, and we will warp it's little space-time fabric in a gravitational field.

Since the hydrogen atom is at it's lowest possible energy state, it cannot radiate away any photons of energy. The hydrogen atom can however, pick up some speed (kinetic energy) in the direction of the time-warping, and can slow-down in measurable "real-time".

Notice that, until the hydrogen atom impacts something else, or speeds through the area of maximum warping with enough energy and momentum to re-emerge elsewhere, the total energy content of the hydrogen atom system remains constant.

Notice that the hydrogen atom seeks-out the lowest potential energy area. This area also corresponds to the area with the slowest "real-time" clock, i.e., to the area of the maximum space-time warping or bending.

C-R speculates that the fabric of space-time can be bent or warped or twisted or squeezed (do you get the picture?), to decrease "real-time". This suggests that there is a right-angle, or phase relationship between real-time and "imaginary-time".

Notice that the hydrogen atom still exists. Other than a real-time energy (potential energy) loss, it has remained essentially unchanged, throughout it's ordeal.

The Space-time Curvature-to R-C or R-L Circuit analogy

or: Use Inductive Reasoning

If we could view space-time from an external frame of reference, we might notice a similarity to the description of a Real(-time) current vs. Imaginary current in an electrical circuit composed of a pure resistance and a pure impedance, either inductance or capacitance.

Just for the "L" of it

Let us imagine a situation using the above mentioned electrical circuit, with an inductance. Consider a diagram plotting the instantaneous phase angle of either the electrical field potential or of the current flow, once a voltage is applied.

Conventional wisdom requires that, to understand this type of a circuit, an "imaginary" voltage and an "imaginary" current must be used in the inductive portion of the circuit. These "imaginary" currents really exist, but they are out of phase with the "true" (RMS) voltage and current which appear across the resistance. In mathematics, the contribution to the voltage and current flow is tracked using i, or the square root of -1.

If the inductance, measured in ohms, vastly exceeded the resistance, also measured in ohms, the phase angle of the current and voltage flowing in the circuit would approach 90^o. The "power" flowing through the circuit would be largely "imaginary", as the real power and current flow would be minuscule, as compared to the total current flowing in the circuit.

Can we Root-out the solution, through this Route?

using root [-1]

In a similar way, we now can imagine a space-time vs. gravitational curvature plot drawn as a phase-angle diagram between Real-time and Imaginary-time. At normal, everyday gravitational levels, the phase angle of the curvature would be so small as to be immeasurable by any practical means. As the gravitational field intensified, the phase angle of the diagram would start to become noticeable on our chart.

One could easily and instantly see that, the plot of the amount of the curvature of space-time at the Schwarzschild radius would be approaching a 90 degree phase angle as the escape velocity approached the speed-of-light. The real-time would approach 0, and all "time" would be imaginary.

Is this Angle of Approach Right?

Let us again use our electronic circuit analogy as a reference, and we can imagine what would occur at the 90 degree space-time phase angle. We would have a total Imaginary-time existence. Any combination of matter-energy will be (with respect to time) in a minimum energy state.

The situation: At the outermost edge of a Black-Hole. The curvature is 100%, and the escape velocity is exactly the speed of light.

The C-R theory will suggest that the mass which is now inside the Black-Hole represents the gravitational analog to the quantum mechanical presentation of the electron in it's minimum energy state. Gravitationally time-collapsed matter-energy may also behave similarly to the hydrogen atom's electron at absolute zero.

At absolute zero, the hydrogen atom has it's electron at the lowest possible energy level, the "s" orbital. The electron cannot lose any more energy once it occupies this orbital.

If the electron were to collapse in its orbit further, closer to the hydrogen nucleus, it would gain energy. If the electron were to jump into a "larger" more energetic orbital, it would also have to increase it's energy. In either case, the electron could no longer be classed as remaining at absolute zero.

The quantum mechanical theory explained the existence of matter, and suggested why the electron did not collapse instantaneously into the proton, even at absolute zero. Quantum mechanics triumphed because it eliminated the singularity predicted by classical mechanics. Scientists grudgingly grasped that the world around them had a built-in, and rather sensible limit, which prevented matter from collapsing into non-existence.

In the case of a gravitational collapse, is there also an analogy which will provide a similarly satisfying solution to the problems faced by a prediction of the total collapse into a singular point? If the total collapse of the electron into the proton was not allowed by nature, even though classical physics demanded it, can it be that gravity has a similar limit?

The Old Ideas on Gravity Can't Stand up to Scrutiny

If gravity behaves as we have predicted from our C-R thought experiments, the slowdown of time is what "causes" gravity.

The Schwarzschild radius is the Black-Hole's external boundary. Here, the local reference-frame for time is slowed-down or warped down to absolute zero-time, in terms of any external, real-time, reference frame.

There's No Time to Allow A Collapse

or: Just in the Niche of Time

By the C-R theory, at the Black-Hole's Schwarzschild radius boundary, no further collapse (inward) is possible! This occurs because of the reduction of real time for all mass inside this Schwarzschild radius to absolute zero. Inside this boundary, the matter-energy combination is at the lowest possible gravitational energy state, with respect to real time.

Because real-time has already been reduced to 0 (no-time), "gravity" cannot collapse matter or energy any further. ALL of the "real-time" has been taken away from the matter and energy which are now trapped inside the Black-Hole.

The curvature of space-time cannot squeeze (or curve) any additional local time out of existence or transform (exchange) the "real-time" energy from the mass into more kinetic energy, because no real-time remains.

Using our electrical analogy, we could imagine that at the Black-Hole boundary, 100% of the real time has been transformed, warped, bent or rotated into an imaginary (i.e., 90^O phase shifted) reality of existence. All matter trapped inside this zone has surrendered as much of its detectable "real-time" existence as is available.

Inside the Schwarzschild radius, there is nothing time-wise left to lose or to give up. Even with a more intense curvature, with a greater (faster than the speed of light required to escape) gravitational escape velocity, there is no energy or "real-time" left to squeeze-out.

Whatever matter-energy that is trapped in this zone must still exist, and must still possess most of it's basic properties. Mass, electrical charge, momentum, angular momentum and rotation still exist within this zone. (See chapter 4)

In this situation, without imparting or inputting more energy into the gravitational collapse, whatever mass is trapped in this zone cannot now expand out of, or contract further into the Black-Hole.

Your Opinion: Can you remain neutral?

Because the real-time occurrences are forbidden at (and presumably- inside) the Schwarzschild radius, and because no further gravitational collapse is possible, the contents of this real-time-inactivated volume of space-time must behave as if they were neutral.

The denizens in this zone are neutral to all speed-of-light (electromagnetic) interactions, to each other, and to the passage of time. We have therefore named this "place": the Neutral Zone.

The matter-energy trapped within this Neutral-Zone still exists, and still warps space-time sufficiently to maintain the gravitational curvature constant outside of the Schwarzschild radius. The contents inside of the Black-Hole will be covered further in several later chapters. (Hint, just like a Tootsie-pop, there may await a special surprise in the center.)

This simple discovery: that gravity cannot collapse matter beyond the 0% real-time curvature stage; eliminates the problem of the singularity from consideration when discussing (C-R) Black-Holes.

When we combine this first 'discovery' with the further conclusions, predictions and assumptions that are covered in the next sections, the resultant theory is: not only very simple, but totally elegant.

The C-R universe will take on a marvelous simplicity and elegance, with ingeniously interrelated components. The C-R theory conclusions will strongly suggest a pre-planned, non-random overall design to the universe.