GEOGRAPHY(page 3)
Before 1900, the Gaddang lived in temporary houses built up on piles. Bamboo walls and thatched roofs were typical of those houses, with some being built in trees as treehouses. They lived near a stream for reliable water supply, and near their swidden(slash and burn fields) which were usually on the slopes of a valley. When the Gaddang would abandon their swidden for a new one they would also abandon their houses. Granaries were built similar to the houses but were separated from them. They had few furnishings and their valuables were beads and gongs. Swidden agriculture, hunting, fishing, and the trade of forest products formed the basis of their economy. With the arrival of the Spanish and Christianization, some of the Gaddang settled down and began to supplement their livelihood by growing cash crops such as maize and tobacco. Swidden rice was the chief crop and it was intercropped with legumes and cucurbits (melons, squashes). After the rice was harvested, sweet potatoes, millet, garlic, and gourds were planted. Other crops that were raised were bananas, sugarcane (used for wine), peppers, taro, and yams. Animals that were raised included pigs, water buffalo, dogs, cats, and chickens. They ate pigs and dogs about once a year, and the chicken more often. Water buffalo were not ordinarily eaten; they were rented to lowlanders. The Gaddang have not been extremely interested in their kinship relations. Theoretically, they have traced lineage back to their great-great-great-great grandparents on both sides and up to their fifth cousins. This has changed over the years and presently most are only aware to their first cousins. Possibly the tradition died out with the introduction of Christianity. Marriage was a way of extending kinship ties, and marriage to a second cousin was acceptable. There was an informal courtship, and traditionally there was child betrothal. Arrangements for the marriage were taken care of by a go-between who would settle the bride's price. A large feast would signify the marriage itself and then the couple would be given inheritance from each set of parents. After the wedding the couple would live with the wife's family so the husband could spend one year working for them as a bride service. Status within the Gaddang society was determined by bravery, knowledge of customary laws, ability to speak at public occasions, and possibly wealth. The epitome of this was mingal, the warrior-headhunter, headhunting being an important part of the Gaddang culture.The Ifugao inhabit the mountains in the western part of Nueva Vizcaya. That area was periodically included within the province under both the Spanish and the Americans. While today it is a separate province called Ifugao, the Ifugao played a part in the history of Nueva Vizcaya when they were included in the province. The word Ifugao has a number of different derivations, including; ipugao, "the people who live on the known earth"; Ipugo, "from the hill"; and, according to Ifugao mythology, ipugo is also the rice grain given to them by their god Matungulan. These people are divided into subgroups with names taken from geographical locations. Sub groups of the Ifugao are Banaue (Banawi, Benauwe), Bunhian (Bungian), Mayoyao (Mayoyo, Mayaoyao, Mayawyaw), Halipan (Salipan, Silipan), Hapao (Sapao, Japao, Hapaw), and Kiangan (Quiangan). The Ifugao are known for their terracing of the mountainsides to plant their rice. Terrace walls are made of earth and rock, and some of the terraces extend more than 1000 feet up the mountainside. Irrigation for the terraces comes from dikes and sluices so the fields can be flooded or drained depending on the need. Terraces were made by hand using wooden shovels and levers. Ifugao built houses in small groups near their fields. Their houses were raised on four posts with a pyramidal roof. They had few furnishings other than a shelf for the heads of enemies taken during raids, and for the heads of animals butchered during ceremonies. The house could be used as a granary with bundles of rice hung from the rafter to be dried by the fire in the house or in a separate but similar building built as a granary. Each of the four posts had a wheel type piece of wood on it near the top to prevent rats and mice from gaining entry and eating the stored grain. Along with rice, sweet potatoes or camote continue to be a major crop; these are grown on hillside swiddens. Other crops grown are corn, taro, yams, cowpeas, lima beans, okra, legumes, sugarcane, and tobacco. Tree crops include coffee, jackfruit, grapefruit, rattan, citrus, areca, coconut, banana, guava, and cacao. Other supplements to the diet are food acquired through hunting, fishing, and gathering. Foods gained from hunting include deer, wild buffalo, pigs, civet cat, wild cat, python, iguana, cobra, and bats. Locust, crickets, and ants are also caught and eaten. Fish are caught in the rivers along with clams, minnows, eels, frogs, and snails. Domesticated animals, water buffalo, pigs, goats, and chickens are kept close to the house at night to protect them from predators. For the Ifugao the family was and is the most important institution; this includes extended family and kinship ties. Within the nuclear family the father had final say but the wife could voice her opinion in all decisions and this continues today. Children were raised to respect their parents and elders. Fathers trained their sons to hunt, use weapons, work in the fields, recite myths and learn the family genealogy. Girls learned to take care of the home, work in the field, and recite the numerous ballads that were a major part of the culture. Children learned their ancestry from an early age; they may have known their relatives to the tenth degree on both sides of the family.
Knowing their genealogy was important to the Ifugao, for it would determine where they fit into the society and their status in various situations. Traditionally, no central government existed among the Ifugao. Each family would govern themselves since there was little feeling of unity outside of kinship ties. Conflicts that occurred outside the family would be settled through common law or the threat of blood feuds. The general rule was that might makes right. Blood feuds were common in Ifugao with the clan obligated to get revenge for any wrong done them. Since headhunting was a part of everyday life, there were blood feuds in progress almost constantly. A person could be economically poor in Ifugao society but still gain status and respect for his prowess in combat and for the number of heads he was able to take. Marriage between first cousins was and is forbidden; if there is a marriage between distant cousins a fine must be paid. Marriage arrangements were negotiated between the two families, and the man gave pigs or carabao for the engagement and the wedding. Prospective husbands would spend time at the home of the woman's family before the wedding, doing chores around the house. When the couple was to be married, they invited the guests and butchered the animals agreed upon, with the native priest divining from the liver, bile, and intestines of the animals if the gods were in favor of the union. If the sign was bad they butchered more animals to get new readings. A couple could divorce if there were no children, or if the wife, but not the husband, was proven an adulterer.
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