WHO WERE THE ILLYRIANS
SPECTACULAR
DISPLAY OF POKORNY'S INDO EUROPEAN ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY
by Andi Zeneli © 2003 - 2005
Trojan Leaders
- List Of Illyrian
Tribes - Illyrian Language - Hittite King
List - Assyrian King
List - Sumerian King
List - When
The King Became A God - Illyrian King
List - Albanian An Illyrian Dialect
- Mythological
Stories - Origin Of Racism In Europe - Illyrian
Altaic Concordances - Guide
To Ied - Caucasian
Albanians Versus Illyrian Albanians - The Origin Of The Serb People - Ila Varta The
Homeland Of Illyrians - An Older Version Of Odysseus - The Meaning Of
Iliad
- Who
Was Homer - Origin of
Hellenic Greeks - The Indo
European Etymological Dictionary - Indo-European
Phonetic System - Turkish
Loanwords In Albanian - Albanian Tocharian B
Glossary
The putative origin of Illyrian Albanians
Elements of
Indo-European Phonology
Attention: This text
is encoded using Unicode / UTF8. The special characters as contained in it can
only be displayed and printed by installing a font that covers Unicode such as
the Arial Unicode MS font.
1. The phonemic inventory (traditional interpretation)
1.1. Non-sonorants (obstruents and laryngeals):
Stops |
Tenues |
Tenues aspiratae |
Mediae |
Mediae aspiratae |
Labials |
p |
ph |
b |
bh |
Dentals |
t |
th |
d |
dh |
Palatals |
ḱ |
ḱh
|
ǵ |
ǵh
|
Velars |
k |
kh |
g |
gh |
Labiovelars |
kw |
kwh |
gw |
gwh |
Sibilants |
voiceless |
voiceless-aspirated |
voiced |
|
Dental |
s |
/ |
/ |
|
Laryngeals |
h1 |
h2 |
h3 |
1.2. Sonorants (vowels, nasals and liquids):
Nasals and Liquids |
r |
l |
m |
n |
Vowels |
front |
central |
back |
|||
short |
long |
short |
long |
short |
long |
|
High |
i |
|
|
|
u |
|
Non-high |
e |
ē |
a |
ā |
o |
ō |
1.3. The ablaut system:
|
Primary (e-) grades |
Secondary (o-) grades |
(a-) grades |
Long grades |
ē |
ō |
(ā) |
Normal (full) grades |
e |
o |
(a) |
Zero (reduced) grade |
Ø |
1.4. PIE phonemes
arranged by distinctive features
|
p |
ph |
b |
bh |
t |
th |
d |
dh |
ḱ |
ḱh
|
ǵ |
ǵh
|
k |
kh |
g |
gh |
kw |
kwh |
gw |
gwh |
s |
h1 |
h2 |
h3 |
consonant |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
obstruent |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
syllabic |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
nasal |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
low |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
high |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
back |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
round |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
anterior |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
coronal |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
lateral |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
continuant |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
fricative |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
aspirated |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
voiced |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
tense |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
r |
l |
m |
n |
i |
u |
e |
ē |
o |
ō |
a |
ā |
consonant |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
obstruent |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
syllabic |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
nasal |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
low |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
high |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
back |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
round |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
anterior |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
coronal |
+ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
lateral |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
continuant |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
fricative |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
aspirated |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
voiced |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
tense |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
1.5. PIE phonemes grouped under cover symbols:
|
p |
ph |
b |
bh |
t |
th |
d |
dh |
ḱ |
ḱh
|
ǵ |
ǵh
|
k |
kh |
g |
gh |
kw |
kwh |
gw |
gwh |
s |
h1 |
h2 |
h3 |
C |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
Z |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
P |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
Ph
|
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
B |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
Bh
|
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
Ψ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Γ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
Δ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
Φ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
S |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
H |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
Π |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
T |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
Ξ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
Ḱ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
X |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
Q |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
K |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
Kh
|
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
G |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
Gh
|
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
r |
l |
m |
n |
i |
u |
e |
ē |
o |
ō |
a |
ā |
C |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
V |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
U |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
Ω |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
E |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
O |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
A |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
F |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
W |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
M |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
R |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
L |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
N |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
I |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
J |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
Y |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
2. Phonemes
and their phonetic realization (overview)
2.1. Non-sonorants (obstruents and laryngeals)
Stops |
Tenues |
Tenues aspiratae |
Mediae |
Mediae aspiratae |
Labials |
p |
ph
|
b |
bh
|
[bh, p2] |
||||
Dentals |
t |
th
|
d |
dh
|
[th, t2] |
[d, dh5, t3] |
[dh, t2] |
||
[tsh6, ts6+2] |
[dz6, ts6+3] |
[dzh6, ts6+2] |
||
[tœh7, tœ7+2] |
[dŸ7, tœ7+3] |
[dŸh7, tœ7+2] |
||
Palatals |
ḱ |
ḱh
|
ǵ |
ǵh
|
[ḱ, ǵ1, ǵh4, ḱh5] |
[ḱh, ḱ2] |
[ǵ, ǵh5, ḱ3] |
[ǵh, ǵ2] |
|
Velars |
k |
kh
|
g |
gh
|
[k, g1, gh4, kh5] |
[kh, k2] |
[g, gh5, k3] |
[gh, g2] |
|
Labiovelars |
kw
|
kwh
|
gw
|
gwh
|
[kw, gw1, gwh4, kwh5] |
[kwh, kw2] |
[gw, gwh5, kw3] |
[gwh, gw2] |
|
Sibilants |
voiceless |
voiceless aspirated |
voiced |
voiced aspirated |
Dental |
s |
|
|
|
[s, z1, sh5, zh4] |
||||
Laryngeals |
h1
|
h2
|
h3
|
|
[h; həa9, əah9] |
[˓; ˓əo9, əo˓9] |
|||
Notes:
1. Voiced realization by regressive
assimilation to following voiced obstruent.
2. Non-aspirated realization by
neutralization in word final position (also before s).
3. Voiceless realization by
regressive assimilation to following voiceless obstruent.
4. Aspirated realization according
to Bartholomae's law.
5. Aspirated realization by
regressive assimilation to following h2.
6. By assibilation in position
before dental stops.
7. By dissimilation in position
before velar (/ palatal / labiovelar) stop ("thorn")?
8. Under unclear conditions:
"ruki".
9. Shewa-anaptyxis with colouring.
10. In word final position
(facultative realization according to Kuiper's law).
2.2. Sonorants (vowels, nasals and liquids):
Vowels |
front |
central |
back |
|||
short |
long |
short |
long |
short |
long |
|
High |
i |
|
|
|
u |
|
[i; ī12] |
[u; ū12] |
|||||
[u̯13] |
||||||
Non-high |
e |
ē |
a |
ā |
o |
ō |
[a] |
[ā] |
[o] |
[ō] |
|||
|
|
[ō12] |
|
Notes:
1. When syllabic.
2. In position before tautosyllabic
laryngeal.
3. In position before tautosyllabic
laryngeal.
4. In position before tautosyllabic
laryngeal.
5. In position before tautosyllabic
laryngeal.
6. By assimilation to adjacent h2 (a-"colouring").
7. By assimilation to adjacent h3 (o-"colouring").
8. No assimilation to adjacent
laryngeals ("colouring") according to Eichner's law.
9. Substitutional lengthening in
position before tauto-syllabic h1.
10. "a-Colouring"
plus substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h2.
11. "o-Colouring"
plus substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h3.
12. Substitutional lengthening in
position before tauto-syllabic laryngeals.
13. Non-syllabic realization in
position before or after syllabic segment.
3. Sample:
Obstruent p
PIE |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
condition / meaning |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. |
Alb. |
Goth. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
p |
p |
#_V |
p |
p |
π |
h |
p |
|
p/h |
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
pˈotis |
pótis |
‘lord, master, husband’
(nom.sg.m.) |
pátiḥ |
paitiš |
πόσις |
|
potis |
|
|
-faþs |
|
(-pod-) |
-pats |
|
pats |
petso |
ph2tˈēr
|
pəa(h)tḗr |
‘father’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
πατήρ |
hayr |
pater |
athir |
atë |
(fadar) |
fater |
|
|
|
pācar |
pācer |
pəa(h)tḗ |
pitā́ |
(p(i))tā |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
pˈōds |
pο̄́ts |
‘foot’ (nom./acc.sg.) |
pā́t |
|
πούς |
|
(pēs) |
|
poshtë ‘below’ |
(fotus) |
fuoz |
|
|
|
|
|
pˈodm |
pódm̥ |
pā́dam |
pādəm |
πόδα |
otn |
(pedem) |
|
|
fotu |
fuoz |
|
|
patan |
(pe) |
(pai) |
|
pˈelh1u-
|
pél՚u- |
‘much’ (masc./ntr. stem) |
|
|
|
|
|
il |
|
filu |
filu |
|
|
|
|
|
plh1ˈu- |
pl̥՚ú- |
purú- |
pouru- |
(πολύ-) |
|
|
|
plot |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
pˈeḱus |
péḱus |
‘livestock’ (nom.sg.f.) |
páœuḥ |
pasuš |
|
|
(pecus) |
|
pasun ‘rich’ |
faihu |
fihu |
|
pekùs |
|
|
|
pˈontēh2s
|
póntē(h)s |
‘way, path’
(nom./gen.sg.) |
pánthāḥ |
pantå̄ |
(πόντος) |
hown |
(pons) |
|
hynj ‘enter’ |
|
|
pǫtĭ |
|
|
|
|
pnth2ˈes |
pn̥thh2as
|
patháḥ |
paϑō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
p |
p |
#_V*Q |
p |
p |
π |
|
c |
c |
p |
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
pˈenkwe
|
pénkwe |
‘five’ (indecl.) |
páñca |
panca |
πέντε |
hing |
quīnque |
cóic |
pêsa |
fimf |
fimf |
(pêtĭ) |
(penkì) |
|
päñ |
piœ |
pˈekweti
|
pékweti |
‘cooks’ (3.sg.prs.) |
pácati |
pacaiti |
|
|
coquit |
|
pjek |
|
|
peèetŭ |
(kẽpa) |
|
(pakät) |
(pakṣäṃ) |
-pˈokwos
|
-pókwos |
‘-cook’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
-κόπος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
p |
p |
#s_V*Ξ |
p |
p |
Κ*π |
|
p |
u̯ |
|
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
(s)pˈeḱieti |
(s)péḱi̯eti |
‘looks’ (3.sg.prs.) |
páœyati |
spasiieiti |
σκέπτε(ται)
|
|
specit |
|
pashë ‘I saw’ |
|
(spehōt) |
|
|
|
|
|
p |
p |
#_C |
p |
f |
π |
|
p |
|
|
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
prˈo |
pró |
‘for(-)’ (prep./prev.) |
prá |
frā |
πρό |
|
pro- |
ro- |
|
fra- |
fir- |
pro- |
pra- |
|
|
|
plˈeueti |
pléu̯eti |
‘floats’ (3.sg.prs.) |
(plávate) |
(frauua-) |
πλέει |
|
(plovet) |
|
|
|
(flew-) |
plovetŭ |
|
|
|
|
p |
p |
V́_V |
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
|
p |
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
ˈuperos |
úperos |
‘upper’ (nom.sg.m.) |
úparaḥ |
uparō |
ὕπερος |
|
(superus) |
|
|
(ufaro) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
nˈepōts |
népōts |
‘nephew’ (nom./acc.sg.) |
nápāt |
napå̄ |
|
|
nepōs |
nia |
nip |
|
neuo |
|
(nepuotis) |
|
|
|
nˈepotm |
népotm̥ |
nápātam |
napātəm |
(νέποδ-) |
|
(nepōtem) |
|
|
|
|
|
(nepuotį) |
|
|
|
|
p |
p |
V_V́ |
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
|
|
b |
b |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
upˈeri |
upéri |
‘over’ (adv.) |
upári |
upairi |
(ὑπέρ) |
ver |
(super) |
(for-) |
|
|
ubir |
|
|
|
|
|
h1ˈepi |
՚épi |
‘above, on’ (adv.) |
ápi |
aipi |
ἔπι |
ew |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
p |
p |
V_PV́ |
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
|
|
b |
b |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
septˈm |
septḿ̥ |
‘seven’ (indecl.) |
saptá |
hapta |
ἑπτά |
ewtՙn |
septem |
(secht) |
shtata |
(sibun) |
(sibun) |
sedmĭ |
(septynì) |
|
ṣpät |
ṣukt |
p |
p |
V_nV́ |
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
u̯ |
|
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
suˈepnos |
su̯épnos |
‘sleep’ (nom.sg.) |
svápnaḥ |
xvafnō |
|
somnus |
|
|
|
(svefn) |
(swefn) |
|
|
|
späṃ |
spane |
suˈopnos |
su̯ópnos |
|
kՙown |
(suan) |
gjumë |
|
|
|
sãpnas |
|
|
|
||||
sˈupnos |
súpnos |
|
|
ὕπνος |
|
|
|
|
sŭnŭ |
|
|
|
|
|||
p |
b |
V_B |
b |
|
β |
|
b |
b |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-pdo- |
-bdo- |
‘-foot-’ (in comp.) |
(upá) bda- |
(fra) bda- |
(ἐπί-) βδ(α)- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
piph3ˈenti |
pibՙónti |
‘drink’ (3.pl.prs.) |
píbanti |
|
|
|
bibunt |
ibat |
pi |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
h2eph3ōn
|
habՙōn |
‘watery’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
aub |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
septmˈih2
|
sebdmíh |
‘seven’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
sedmĭ |
|
|
|
|
4. Rules of phonetic realization
4.1. Neutralizations and assimilations among obstruents
4.1.1. Regressive voice assimilation:
Notation with cover symbols:
Ξ → Γ / _ Γ |
Examples:
PIE |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. |
Alb. |
Goth. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
nisdˈos |
nizdós |
‘nest’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
nist |
nīdus |
net |
|
|
nest |
|
|
|
|
|
niždós |
nīḍáḥ, nīḷáḥ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
h2ˈosdos |
hózdos |
‘branch’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
ὄζος |
|
|
|
|
asts |
ast |
|
|
(ḫašduer) |
|
|
sˈi-sd-eti |
sízdeti |
‘sit’ (3.pl.prs.) |
|
|
ἵζει |
|
sīdit |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
síždeti > sḯdeti |
sī́dati |
(ni-) šhiδaiti |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
misdhˈom |
mizdhóm |
‘salary, rent’
(acc.sg.mn. / nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
μισϑόν |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
miždhóm |
mīḍhám
|
mı̄̆ždəm |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
misdhˈeh2
|
mizdháh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(mizdo) |
(miata) |
mĭzdá |
|
|
|
|
|
miždháh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
mns-dhēh1-s
|
mn̥zdhē(՚)s
|
‘reasoner’ (nom.sg.m.) |
medhā́ḥ |
mazdå̄ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-pdo- |
-bdo- |
‘-foot-’ (in comp.) |
upá-bda- |
fra-bda- |
ἐπί-βδα- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
pˈiph3enti
|
píbՙonti |
‘drink’ (3.pl.prs.) |
píbanti |
|
|
|
bibunt |
ibat |
pi |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
h2eph3ōn
|
habՙōn |
‘watery’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
aub |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
septmˈih2
|
sebdmíh |
‘seven’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
sedmĭ |
|
|
|
|
4.1.2. Regressive devoicing:
4.1.2.1. General rule:
Notation with cover symbols:
Γ → Ξ / _ Ξ |
4.1.2.2. Problem of relative chronology: Lachmann's law (valid for
Latin):
Notation with cover symbols:
V → V̄ / _ PP |
Examples:
PIE |
cp. |
Proto-Latin |
Latin |
||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
|
regular development |
morpholog. reanalysis |
Lachmann's lengthening |
Old Latin |
Classic |
|
h3reǵ-tˈos
|
ՙreḱtós |
‘directed, right’ |
(Greek ὀρεκτός,
YAv. (raštəm), Goth. (raiht-) |
*rectos |
*reg-tos |
*[re·gtos] |
*rēctos |
rēctus |
|
teg-tˈos |
tektós |
‘thatched’ |
Greek *στεκτός
|
*tektos |
*teg-tos |
*[te·gtos] |
*tēctos |
tēctus |
|
h2eǵ-tˈos
|
haḱtós |
‘driven’ |
Greek ἀκτός, OIr. acht
|
*aktos |
*ag-tos |
*[a·gtos] |
*āctos |
āctus |
|
h2ˈeg-tōr
|
háktōr |
‘driver’ |
Greek ἄκτωρ |
*aktōr |
*ag-tōr |
*[a·gtōr] |
*āctōr |
||
iug-tˈos |
i̯uktós |
‘joined’ |
OInd. yuktáḥ, Av. yuxta-,
OEngl. iuht |
*iuktos |
*iug-tos |
*[i̯u·gtos] > [i̯u·ngtos] |
*iūnctos |
iūnctus |
|
uid-tˈos |
u̯itstós |
‘known’ |
Greek (ἄ-) Ϝιστος,
OInd. vittáḥ, OAv. vistō, OSax. wis, OHG (gi-)
wis |
*u̯ittsos |
*u̯id-tsos |
*[u̯i·dtsos] |
*u̯īssos |
uīsus |
|
h1ed-tˈos |
՚etstós |
‘eaten’ |
OIr. es |
*ettsos |
*ed-tsos |
*[e·dtsos] |
*ēssos |
ēsus |
|
Exceptions: |
|||||||||
-sˈed-tis |
-sétstis |
‘sitting’ |
OInd. (ní-) ṣattiḥ, YAv. (ni-)
šasti- |
*-settsis |
|
|
*-sessis |
-sessiō |
|
-sed-tˈos |
-setstós |
‘sitten’ |
OInd. -sattáḥ |
*-settsos |
|
|
*-sessos |
-sessus |
|
skhid-tós |
skhitstós
|
‘split’ |
Greek σχιστός, YAv. (a-) sistō
|
*skittsos |
|
|
*scissos |
scissus |
|
4.1.2.3.
Unification of rules:
4.1.3. Deaspiration in word final position (also before word final s):
Notation with cover symbols:
Φ → Δ / _ # | _ s # |
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Alb. |
Latin |
OIr. |
Goth. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
dhrˈiGh-s
|
dhríks |
‘hair’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
ϑρίξ |
|
drizë ‘blackthorn’ |
|
driss ‘blackthorn’ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dhriGh-ˈes
|
dhriGhés
|
(gen.sg.f.) |
|
|
τριχός |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4.1.4. Progressive aspiration (Bartholomae's law; facultative rule in
PIE?):
Notation with cover symbols:
Δ → Φ / Φ _ →→
Φ → Bh / Bh _ |
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
bhudh-tˈos
|
bhutstós
|
‘noticed, become aware’ (PPP) |
|
|
(ἄ-) πυστος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bhudzdhós
|
buddháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uidh-tós |
u̯itstós |
‘divided’ (PPP) |
|
|
|
|
(dī-) vīsus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
u̯idzdhós
|
viddháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
iudh-tˈos |
i̯utstós |
‘instigated (to fight)’
(PPP) |
|
|
|
|
iussus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i̯udzdhós
|
yuddháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
lubh-tˈeh2
|
luptáh |
‘desired, beloved’ (PPP
nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
λυπτά |
|
|
|
laps |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
lubdháh |
lubdhā́ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uéǵh-tōr
|
u̯éḱtōr |
‘carrier’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
vectōr |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
u̯éǵdhōr
|
voḍhā́,
voḷhā́ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
ueǵh-tˈos
|
u̯eḱtós |
‘carried, transported’ (PPP) |
|
vašta- |
|
|
vectus |
fecht |
vjedh ‘steal’ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
u̯eǵdhós
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uǵh-tˈos
|
uḱtós |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
uǵdhós |
ūḍháḥ,
ūḷháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
udhë ‘way’ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4.1.5. Regressive aspiration by assimilation to following h2 (facultative rule in
PIE?):
Notation with cover symbols:
Δ → Φ /_ h2
|
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
||
sth2-tˈos |
sthhəatós
|
‘having stood’ (PPP) |
sthitáḥ |
|
|
|
status |
-ssad |
|
|
|
|
stãtas |
|
|
|
||
stəa(h)tós |
|
|
στατός |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||
sth2-tˈim |
sthhəatím
|
‘standing’ (acc.sg.f.) |
sthítiṃ |
|
|
|
statim |
|
|
(staþ) |
stat |
|
|
|
|
|
||
stəa(h)tím |
|
|
στάσιν |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||
pro-sth2-os
|
prosthhos |
‘standing forward’
(nom.sg.m.) |
prasthaḥ |
|
|
|
|
ross |
|
|
|
prostŭ |
|
|
|
|
||
mˈeǵh2
|
meǵhhəa
|
‘big’ (nom.sg.n.) |
máhi |
|
|
|
|
|
madh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
meǵəa(h) |
|
|
μέγα |
mec |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||
meǵ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
mek |
|
|
||||||||
mˈeǵh2-istos
|
méǵhhištos |
‘biggest’ (nom.sg.m.) |
máhiṣṭhaḥ
|
mazištō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
méǵ(h)istos |
|
μέγιστος
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||
plth2ˈus |
pl̥thhuš |
‘broad’ (nom.sg.m.) |
pṛthúḥ
|
pərəϑu- |
|
|
|
leth |
|
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|
|
(platùs) |
|
|
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||
pl̥t(h)us |
|
|
πλατύς |
|
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|
||||||||
plth2uˈih2
|
pl̥thhəau̯íh
|
‘earth’ (nom.sg.f.) |
pṛthivī́
|
pərəϑβī- |
|
|
|
Cymr. Llydaw |
|
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||
pl̥təa(h)u̯íh
|
|
Πλαταια- |
|
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|||||||||
pl̥t(h)u̯íh |
|
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|||||||||
rˈot-h2-os
|
róthhos |
‘cart’ (nom.sg.m.) |
ráthaḥ |
raϑō |
|
|
|
roth |
|
|
rad |
|
rãtas |
|
|
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||
rót(h)os |
|
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||||||||
rot-eh2
|
rotah |
‘wheel’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
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|
|
rota |
|
rrota |
|
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|
|
|
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|
||
Problematic
cases (implying loss of laryngeal): |
||||||||||||||||||
dhugh2tˈēr
|
dhughhəatḗr
|
‘daughter’ (nom.sg.f.) |
duhitā́ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(kbatra) Lyc. |
ckācar |
tkācer |
||
dhugəa(h)tḗr
|
|
|
ϑυγάτηρ |
|
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|||||||
dhugdhḗr
|
|
dugədā |
|
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|||||||
dhuktḗr |
|
|
|
dowstr |
|
|
|
dauhtar |
tochter |
dŭštĭ |
duktė̃ |
|||||||
4.1.6. Assibilation of dental stops before dental stops:
Notation with cover symbols:
T → TS / _ T |
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
||
urt-tˈos |
u̯r̥tstós
|
‘turned’ (PPP) |
vṛttáḥ |
|
|
|
vorsus |
fres- |
|
|
|
|
vir̃stas |
|
|
|
||
bhudh-tˈos
|
bhutstós
|
‘noticed, become aware’ (PPP) |
|
|
(ἄ-) πυστος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
bhudzdhós
|
buddháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
iudh-tˈos |
i̯utstós |
‘instigated (to fight)’
(PPP) |
|
|
|
|
iussus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
i̯udzdhós
|
yuddháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
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|
||||
uidh-tós |
u̯itstós |
divided |
|
|
|
|
(dī-) vīsus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
u̯idzdhós
|
viddháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
uid-tˈos |
u̯itstós |
‘known’ (PPP) |
vittáḥ |
vistō |
(ἄ-) Ϝιστος |
|
uīsus |
|
|
wis |
(gi-) wis |
|
|
|
|
|
||
h1ˈēd-ti
|
՚ḗtsti
|
‘eats’ (3.sg.prs.) |
(átti) |
|
(ἔδεται subj. >
fut.) |
|
*ēst |
(ys) |
|
|
(ist) |
ìstŭ |
ė́sti |
ēšzi |
|
|
||
h1ed-dh·i
|
՚eddhí |
‘eat!’ (2.sg.ipv.) |
addhí |
|
*ἐσϑί > ἐσϑίω
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
h1ed-tˈos |
՚etstós |
‘eaten’ (PPP) |
|
|
|
|
ēsus |
es |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
-sˈed-tis |
-sétstis |
‘sitting’ (nom.sg.f.) |
(ní-) ṣattiḥ |
(ni-) šasti- |
|
|
-sessiō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
-sed-tˈos |
-setstós |
‘sitten’ (PPP) |
-sattáḥ |
|
|
|
-sessus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uoid-th2e
|
u̯oi̯tsthha
|
‘you have known’
(2.sg.pf.) |
véttha |
vōistā |
(Ϝ)οῖσϑα |
|
|
|
|
waist |
uueist(u) |
(vìsi) |
|
|
|
|
||
sḱhid-tós
|
sḱhitstós
|
‘split’ (PPP) |
|
(a-) sistō |
σχιστός |
|
scissus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
Problematic
cases (implying loss of laryngeals): |
||||||||||||||||||
dhe-dhh1-tˈoi
|
dhedh՚ətói̯
|
‘puts for himself’
(3.sg.prs.med.) |
|
|
(τίϑεται) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dhetstói̯
|
dhatté |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
dhedzdhói̯
|
|
dazdē |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
de-dh3-tˈoi
|
dedՙətói̯ |
‘gives for himself’
(3.sg.prs.med.) |
|
|
(διδοται) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
detstói̯ |
datté |
dastē |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
4.1.7. Dissimilation of dental stops before velar stops ("thorn"
rule):
Notation with cover symbols:
T → Þ / _ Ξ |
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
h2ˈrtḱos
|
hə́artœḱós
|
‘bear’ |
|
|
|
|
ursus |
art |
ari |
|
|
|
|
ḫartka- |
|
|
hə́arḱtœós
|
ṛ́kṣaḥ |
aršō |
ἄρκτος |
arǰ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
tḱˈitis |
tœḱítis |
‘settlement’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ḱtœítiš |
kṣitíḥ |
šiti- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
ḱtœítis |
|
|
κτίσις |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dhǵhuH-m
|
dŸǵhúhm
|
‘fish’ (acc.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dŸǵhúhm̥
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
ǵdŸhúhm |
|
|
ἰχϑὺν |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
ǵdŸhúhm̥ |
|
|
|
jukn |
|
|
|
|
|
|
žùvį́ |
|
|
|
||
dhǵhˈom-i-os
|
dŸǵhómii̯os
|
‘earthly’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ǵdŸhómii̯os |
kṣámiyaḥ
|
|
χϑόνιος |
|
|
duine |
dhe ‘earth’ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dhǵhem-iˈeh2
|
dŸǵhemi̯áh
|
‘land’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ǵdŸhemi̯ah |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
zemljá |
žẽmė |
|
|
|
||
dhǵhm-ˈes
|
dŸǵhmés
|
‘earth’ (gen.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dagnaš |
|
|
ǵdŸhmés |
kṣmáḥ |
zəmō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dŸhmés |
jmáḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
dŸhm̥mes |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dhǵhm-ˈei
|
dŸǵhmei̯
|
‘earth’ (dat.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ǵdŸhmei̯ |
(kṣmé) |
zəmē |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dŸhmei̯ |
jmé |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
dŸhm̥mei̯ |
|
|
(χαμαί) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dhˈeǵhōm
|
dhéǵhōm
|
‘earth’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dēgan |
|
|
> dhǵhˈōm
|
dŸǵhṓm
|
|
(zå̄) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ǵdŸhṓm |
(kṣāḥ) |
χϑών |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
dh’eǵhom-m
|
dhéǵhomm̥
|
‘earth’ (acc.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dhéǵhōm
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
> dhǵhˈom-m
|
dŸǵhomm̥
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tkaṃ |
keṃ |
|
ǵdŸhomm̥ |
|
|
χϑόνα |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dŸǵhōm
|
|
z¹m |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
ǵdŸhōm |
kṣā́m |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
ˈn-dhgwhi-tom
|
ń̥dŸgwhitóm
|
‘imperishable’ (neg. PPP,
nom.sg.n.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ń̥gwdŸhitóm
|
ákṣitam |
|
ἄϕϑιτον |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dhgwhˈi-tis
|
dŸgwhítis
|
‘peril’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
gwdŸhítis
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
gwdŸhítiš
|
kṣitíḥ |
|
ϕϑίσις |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dhgwhineHti
|
dŸgwhinEHti
|
‘destroys’ (3.sg.prs.) |
|
jināiti |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
gwdŸhinEHti
|
kṣiṇāti |
|
(ϕϑίνει) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4.1.8. "Ruki" rule (facultative rule in PIE?):
4.1.8.1. a) after i,u:
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / I _ |
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
duís |
du̯ís |
‘twice’ |
|
|
δίς |
|
duis > bis |
|
dysh ‘two’ |
twis |
zwir- |
|
|
|
|
|
duu̯ís |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
du̯íš |
dvíḥ |
ϑβiš |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
duu̯íš |
duvíḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
trís |
trís |
‘thrice’ |
|
|
τρίς |
|
ter |
|
trish ‘three’ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tríš |
tríḥ |
ϑriš |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
h1ish1/2rˈos |
՚isəe/a(՚/h)rós |
‘vivid; holy’ |
|
|
ἱε/αρός |
|
|
(IARI) |
|
|
(isara) |
|
|
|
|
|
՚išəe/a(՚/h)rós |
iṣiráḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
toisu |
toi̯su |
‘in these’ (loc.pl.) |
|
|
τοῖσι |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
toi̯šu |
téṣu |
*taēšu |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
tìxŭ |
|
|
|
|
||
h2usih1
|
husi՚ |
‘ears’ (nom.du.n.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
huši՚ |
|
ušī |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
uši |
|
|
|
|
||
h2ˈeusos |
háusos |
‘ear’ (nom.sg.n.) |
|
|
|
|
(auris) |
áu |
vesh |
(ausō) |
(ōra) |
|
(ausìs) |
|
|
|
háušos |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
uxo |
|
|
|
|
||
h2ˈeusōs
|
háusōs |
‘dawn’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
ἠώς |
|
(aurōrā) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
háušōs |
(uṣ.ā́ḥ) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
> h2usˈōs
|
husṓs |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
hušṓs |
(uṣā́ḥ) |
(ušå̄) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
h2ˈeusom |
háusom |
‘gold’ (nom.sg.n.) |
|
|
|
|
aurum |
|
ar |
|
|
|
ausas > áuksas |
|
(wäs) |
(yasa) |
háušom |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
h1ˈeus-eti |
՚éu̯seti |
‘burns’ (3.sg.prs.) |
|
|
εὕει |
|
ūrit |
|
ethe ‘fever’ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
՚éu̯šeti |
oṣati |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
h1ustˈos |
՚ustós |
‘burned’ (PPP, nom.sg.m.)
|
|
|
|
|
ustus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
՚uštós |
uṣṭáḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dus-h1ˈeusom
|
dus՚éusom |
‘hard to burn’
(acc.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
duš՚éušom |
duróṣam |
dūraošəm |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
dus-menˈeses |
dusmenéses |
‘badly minded’
(nom.pl.m.) |
|
|
δυσμενέα |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dušmenéses |
durmanasaḥ |
dušmanaŋhō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
(s)nusˈos |
(s)nusós |
‘daughter-in-law’
(nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
νυός |
now |
nurus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(s)nušós |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
(s)nusˈeh2
|
(s)nusáh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(s)nušáh |
snuṣā́ |
|
|
|
|
|
nusja |
snor |
snur |
snŭxá |
|
|
|
|
4.1.8.2. b) after velars:
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / Ξ _ |
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
ksurˈos |
ksurós |
‘knife’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
ξυρός |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
kšurós |
kṣuráḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uksˈōn |
uksṓn |
‘ox’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
ych |
|
*aúhsa |
ohso |
|
|
|
|
okso |
ukšṓn |
ukṣā́ |
uxšā |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uksˈenm |
uksénm̥ |
‘ox’ (acc.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
rī |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ukšénm̥ |
ukṣánam |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uksˈonm |
uksónm̥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ukšónm̥ |
ukṣā́nam |
uxšānəm |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
-rˈēǵs |
-rḗḱs |
‘ruler’ (in comp.,
nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
rēx |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-rḗḱš |
-rā́ṭ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
-uēǵh-s-t
|
-u̯ēḱst |
‘carried’ (3.sg.aor.) |
|
|
|
|
(vēxit) |
|
|
|
|
(vìs-) |
|
|
|
|
-u̯ēḱšt |
(á)-vāṭ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
uˈeǵh-s-e-t(i)
|
u̯éḱset(i) |
‘will carry’
(3.sg.aor.subj.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
u̯éḱšet(i) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
u̯éǵžhet(i)
|
vákṣat(i) |
(uz-)uuažat |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
h2uogs-eie-ti |
hu̯oksei̯eti |
‘grows’ (3.sg.prs.caus.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
wahseiþ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
hu̯okšei̯eti |
vakṣaya(m) |
vaxšaiiat(ō) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
uˈōkw-s
|
u̯ṓkws
|
‘voice’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
vōx |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
u̯ṓkwš
|
vā́k |
vāxš |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Unification of rules a) and b):
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / I | Ξ _ |
4.1.8.3. b) after r:
Notation with cover symbols:
s → š / r _ |
Examples:
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
h2rsēn |
hr̥sēn |
‘male (bull)’ (nom.sg.m.)
|
|
|
ἄρσ/ρην |
|
|
|
|
|
(orre-) |
|
|
|
|
|
hr̥šēn |
(ṛṣa-) |
arša |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
tˈrsus |
tŕ̥sus |
‘dry’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
τέρσομαι |
|
|
|
ter |
þaúrsus |
(durri) |
|
|
|
|
|
tŕ̥šus |
tṛṣúḥ |
taršu- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
trstˈos |
tr̥stós |
‘thirsty’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
tart |
|
(þaurstei) |
(durst) |
|
|
|
|
|
tr̥štós |
tṛṣṭáḥ |
tarštō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
Hˈorsos |
Hórsos |
‘ass, buttock’
(nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
ὄρρος |
or̄ |
|
|
jerm ‘frenzied’ |
ars |
ars |
|
|
arra- |
|
|
Hóršos |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
prsth2ˈom
|
pr̥sth(h)óm |
‘peak, ridge’
(acc.sg.m.n.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
prĭstŭ |
pir̃st¹ |
|
|
|
pr̥šth(h)óm |
pṛṣṭhám
|
parštəm |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
meh2tˈr-s |
mahtŕ̥s |
‘mother’ (gen.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
mahtŕ̥š |
mātúr |
*mātərəš |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
meh2tr-ˈes |
mahtrés |
|
|
|
|
mātris |
|
motër ‘sister’ |
|
|
matere |
móteres |
|
|
(mātri) |
|
meh2tr-ˈos |
mahtrós |
|
|
μητρός |
mawr |
|
máthar |
|
|
muoter |
|
|
|
|
|
4.2. Rules of syllabification
4.2.1. Hierarchy:
Rank |
Sound category |
Conditions of syllabicity |
I. |
Non-high vowels |
Always (wherever they
appear) |
II. |
High vowels, nasals, liquids |
When not adjacent to sound of category I and when not followed
by syllabic sound of category II ("Schindler's rule"); |
|
|
when, as second element of syllable, followed by sound of
category I in word-final syllable ("Sievers'" and
"Lindeman's" laws) |
III. |
Laryngeals |
When not adjacent to sound of category I or syllabic sound of
category II |
IV. |
"Shewa secundum" |
Within remaining clusters of non-syllabic consonants
(facultatively) |
4.2.2. Schematic rule representation:
4.2.2.1. Non-high vowels ("syllabic" not regarded as an underlying
feature)
4.2.2.2. Other sonorants ("sonorant" not regarded as an underlying
feature): Schindler's rule ( Die Sprache 23 [1977], p. 56):
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
R → R̥ / (# | C) _ (C | #) |
(rule operating iteratively from right to left, with high vowels, nasals and
liquids regarded as being underlyingly non-syllabic)
4.2.2.2.1. Subrule I: Sievers'
law (after Schindler, o.c., p. 57):
Alternative notation with cover symbols:
R → R̥ / WCn1 _ VCn0# | VRCn1 _ VCn0# |
Same with notation of presumptive syllable boundaries (.):
R → R̥ / W.Cn1 _ VCn0# | VR.Cn1 _ VCn0# |
N.B. Tautosyllabic obstruent clusters are no valid condition:
R → R / VPP. _ VCn0#
|
4.2.2.2.2. Lindeman's law:
Notation by cover symbols:
R → R̥ / #Cn1
_ VCn0#
|
Example:
Paradigm *{ḱuon-} "dog" |
||||||
Case form |
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
Old Indic |
Greek |
|
attested |
expected |
|||||
Nom.Sg. |
/ḱuō(n)/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯ō(n)] /
[ḱuu̯ō(n)] |
œuvā |
κύων / †πῶν
|
|
Acc.Sg. |
/ḱuón-m/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯ónm̥] |
œvā́nam |
<κύνα> |
†πόνα
|
Gen.Sg. |
/ḱun-és/ |
→ |
[ḱunés] |
œunás |
(κυνός) |
†κυνές
|
Nom.Pl. |
/ḱuón-es/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯ónes] |
œvā́nas |
<κύνες> |
†πόνες
|
Acc.Pl. |
/ḱun-ns/ |
→ |
[ḱunn̥s] |
œunás |
κύνας |
|
Instr.Pl. |
/ḱun-bʰís/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯n̥bʰís] |
œvabhís |
|
|
Loc.Pl. |
/ḱun-sú/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯n̥sú] |
*œvasú |
<(κῡσί)> |
†πασύ
|
4.2.2.3. Laryngeals (N.B.: syllabicity of obstruents phonetically implausible)
/hx/ → [h̥x]
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
H → H̥ / (C | #) H _ (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1. Alternative solutions:
4.2.2.3.1.1. Shewa anaptyxis before laryngeals:
/hx/ → [əxhx]
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
Ø → ə / (C | #) _ H (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1.2. Shewa anaptyxis after laryngeals:
/hx/ → [hxəx]
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
Ø → ə / (C | #) H _ (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1.3. Shewa substitution (N.B.: "double" effects not
accountable for):
/hx/ → [əx]
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
H → ∀ / (C | #) _ (C | #) |
4.2.3. Other rules concerning laryngeals:
4.2.3.1. "Colouring":
Notation with cover symbols:
e → a / ( _ h2
) | ( h2 _ ) |
e → o / ( _ h3
) | ( h3 _ ) |
4.2.3.2. Loss of laryngeal in pausa position ("Kuiper's law",
facultative; after colouring!):
Notation with cover symbols:
H → Ø / _ ## |
4.2.3.3. "Compensatory lengthening":
4.2.3.3.1. a) coinciding with colouring:
e → ē / _ h1C
|
e → ā / _ h2C
|
e → o / _ h3C
|
4.2.3.3.2. b) same, with laryngeals "absorbed":
eh1 → ē / _
C |
eh2 → ā / _
C |
eh3 → o / _ C |
N.B. This cannot be the general rule of PIE because *h2 has been preserved as
ḫ in this position in Anatolian; cp., e.g. Hitt. paḫš-
< *peh2-sḱ- vs. Lat.
4.2.3.3.3. c) rule to be applied after colouring, including lengthening of i,u,r̥,l̥,m̥,n̥:
V → V̄ / _ HC |
N.B. In the case of nasals and liquids, this rule can hardly represent the
actual phonetic development if we consider the Greek development of -ενε- vs -νη- etc. (governed by accent? ablaut levelling?); rather
a rule of shewa anaptyxis? Cp.
PIE |
Greek |
Latin |
Slavic |
Indo-Iranian |
Toch.B |
Alb. |
|||
phonological input |
phonetic output |
Proto-Greek |
Classic |
OInd. |
Avest. |
|
|
||
/ǵˈn̥h1-ti-s/ |
[ǵə́en՚əetis]
|
*génetis |
γένεσις |
|
|
|
|
|
|
[ǵnəe՚tis] |
|
|
nāti-ō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
/ǵn̥h1-tˈo-s/
|
[ǵnəe՚tós] |
*gnātós |
(κασί-) γνητος
|
nātus |
|
|
|
|
|
[ǵəen՚tós] |
|
|
|
|
jātáḥ |
jātō |
|
|
|
/ḱˈr̥h2sˈn-h2/ |
[ḱəar̥̄hsn̥̄́h]
|
|
|
|
|
œīrṣā́ |
|
|
|
[ḱə́arhəasnəah]
|
*kárahna |
κάρηνα |
|
|
|
|
|
ka |
|
/ḱr̥h2sn̥-ˈes/
|
[ḱəarhsnés] |
|
|
|
|
œīrṣṇás |
|
|
|
/ḱˈr̥h2sn̥-tos/
|
[ḱrə́ahsn̥tos]
|
*krā́hatos |
κρᾱ́ατος
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
/ḱˈr̥h2os/
|
[ḱə́arhos]
|
|
|
|
|
œíraḥ |
sarə̄ |
|
|
/-str̥h3-toi/ |
[-stəorՙə3toi]
|
*-storotoi̯ |
ἐ-στόροται
|
|
|
|
|
|
shtrinj, shtrofkë |
/str̥h3-tˈo-s/ |
[strəoՙtós] |
*strōtós |
στρωτός |
strātus |
|
|
|
|
|
[stəorՙtós] |
|
|
|
|
(stīrṇáḥ) |
starətas- |
|
|
|
/pˈrh3uos/ |
[pə3rՙu̯os] |
|
|
|
pĭ́rvŭ-jŭ |
pū́rvaḥ |
pouruuō |
pärwe-ṣṣe |
parë |
/pˈrh3tos/ |
[prə́3ՙtos]
|
*prṓtos |
πρῶτος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
4.2.3.3.4. d) same in word final position: three (facultative) effects:
4.2.3.3.4.1. lengthening:
V → V̄ / _ HC |
4.2.3.3.4.2. loss of laryngeal ("Kuiper's law"):
Notation with cover symbols:
H → Ø / V _ # |
4.2.3.3.4.3. after i,u: shewa anaptyxis before laryngeal:
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
Ø → ə / R _ H # |
Examples:
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
*/pˈih1uerih2/
|
→ |
[pī́u̯erī] |
> |
OInd. pī́varī |
→ |
[pī́u̯eri] |
> |
OInd. voc. *pī́vari |
|
→ |
[pī́u̯eri̯əah]
|
> |
Greek πίειρα |
|
/pˈotnih2/ |
→ |
[pótnī] |
> |
OInd. pátnī |
→ |
[pótni] |
> |
OInd. voc. pátni |
|
→ |
[pótnii̯əah]
|
> |
Greek πότνια |
|
/plth2uˈih2/ |
→ |
[pl̥thhəau̯ī́]
|
> |
OInd. pr̥th(i)vī́ |
→ |
[pĺ̥thhəau̯i]
|
> |
OInd. voc. pḁ̀th(i)vi |
|
→ |
[pl̥təahu̯i̯əah]
|
> |
Greek *πλαταῖα
|
|
/h3kwih1
|
→ |
[ՙəokwī]
|
> |
(Arm. aèՙ-kՙ, Slav. oèī,
Lith. akì) |
→ |
[ՙəokwi]
|
|
|
|
|
[ՙəokwi̯əe՚]
|
> |
Greek ὄσσε |
4.2.3.4. Occlusives ("shewa secundum"). Cf. Peters, Laryngale,
98. N.B.: This "shewa" to be regarded as unrounded high vowel
Notation with cover symbols:
Ø → i̵ / #Z_ZC |
N.B. This rule is
facultative; it alternates with cluster reduction:
Notation with cover symbols:
Z → Ø / #_ZC |
N.B. This rule must be
applied before Lindeman's law.
4.3. Further rules concerning syllabification:
4.3.1. Stang's (second) law:
Notation with cover symbols:
EI → Ē / _ N |
Examples:
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
*/dieum/ |
→ |
[d(i)i̯ēm] |
> |
OInd. diyām, Greek ζῆν, Lat. *diēm > diem |
*/gwoum/ |
→ |
[gwōm] |
> |
OInd. gām, Greek βῶν |
4.3.2. Stang's law applied to
laryngeals:
This rule is obviously facultative, alternating with syllabification of the
nasal involved:
Examples:
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
*/teh2m/ |
→ |
[tām] |
> |
OInd. tām,
Greek τήν, OCS tǫ
|
*/teh2ns/ |
→ |
[tāns] |
> |
Greek τᾱ́ς <
τανς << τᾱνς; |
→ |
[tahn̥s] |
> |
PIIr. *tahas > OInd. tās; |
|
*/h2uˈeh1ntos/
|
→ |
[hu̯ḗntos] |
→ |
Toch. want / yente;
Goth. winds, Lat. uentus |
→ |
[hu̯é՚n̥tos] |
→ |
OInd. Avest. <vā́tas>
[u̯aatas] |
4.3.3. Rix' law (concerning Greek):
4.3.3.1. Alternative interpretation 1: Shewa substitution:
4.3.3.2. Alternative interpretation 2: Left shewa anaptyxis:
N.B. Must be applied before Osthoff's law?
4.3.3.3. Alternative interpretation 3: Right
shewa anaptyxis:
Examples:
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
*h1rsḱˈe- |
→ |
[՚r̥sḱé-] |
> |
OInd. r̥cchá-ti |
→ |
[՚əersḱé-] |
> |
Greek ἔρχε-ται
|
|
*h2mbhˈi) |
→ |
[hm̥bhí] |
> |
OInd. abhí, OHG umbe |
→ |
[həambhí]
|
> |
Greek ἄμϕί |
|
*h3nbhl- |
→ |
[ՙn̥bhl-]
|
> |
Lat. umbilīcus, OIr. imbliu |
→ |
[ՙəonbhl̥l-]
|
> |
Greek ὄμϕαλός
|
|
*h3nobh- |
→ |
[ՙəonobh]
|
> |
OHG nabulo, OInd. nābha- |
*h3nebh- |
→ |
[ՙəonebh]
|
> |
Arm. aniw |
5. Rules concerning
individual branches or languages
5.1. General tendencies in the development of the system of stops:
Proto-IE. |
T |
M |
MA |
Rules to be observed |
Old-Indic |
T |
M |
MA |
, |
Old-Iranian |
T |
M |
, |
|
Greek |
T |
M |
TA |
|
Italic |
T |
M |
TA > F |
|
Celtic |
T |
M |
|
|
Germanic |
F |
T |
M > F |
|
Balto-Slavic |
T |
M |
|
|
Armenian |
TA |
TG |
M |
|
Tocharian |
T |
|
||
Anatolian |
T? |
M? |
|
5.1.1. Glottalistic reinterpretation:
Proto-IE. |
TA |
TG |
MA |
Rules to be observed |
Old-Indic |
T |
M |
MA |
, |
Old-Iranian |
T |
M |
, |
|
Greek |
T |
M |
TA |
|
Italic |
T |
M |
TA > F |
|
Celtic |
T |
M |
|
|
Germanic |
F |
T |
M > F |
|
Balto-Slavic |
T |
M |
|
|
Armenian |
TA |
TG |
M |
|
Tocharian |
T |
|
||
Anatolian |
T? |
M? |
|
N.B.: T = Tenuis, M =
F = Fricative, TG = Tenuis Glottalis
5.1.2. Special rules
for original mediae aspiratae in Latin:
5.1.2.1. Proto-Italic development:
5.1.2.1.1. Desonorization (as in Greek):
↓ |
*bʰ |
*dʰ |
*ǵʰ/*gʰ |
*gwʰ |
|
*pʰ |
*tʰ |
*kʰ |
*kwʰ |
5.1.2.1.2. Fricativization (as in later Greek):
↓ |
*pʰ |
*tʰ |
*kʰ |
*kwʰ |
|
*f |
*ϑ |
*χ |
*χw |
5.1.2.2. Proto-Latin developments:
5.1.2.2.1. Sonorization in intervocalic position:
↓ |
*f |
*ϑ |
*χ |
*χw |
|
*ƀ |
*ð |
*ǥ |
*ǥw |
5.1.2.2.2. Further development of dental fricatives:
5.2. Grimm's / Verner's law
5.2.1. Rule A:
5.2.2. Rule B:
5.2.3. Rule C:
5.2.4. Rules B and C unified:
5.3. Grassmann's law (dissimilation of
aspirated sounds, valid for Indo-Iranian and Greek)
N.B. This rule must be applied after the desonorization of mediae in Greek:
5.4. Brugmann's rule (valid for Indo-Iranian)
5.5. Spirantization of stops in Iranian:
5.6. The Indo-Iranian development of palatals ("palatal law"):
N.B. Must be applied before the merger of mid vowels:
Examples:
PIE |
PIIr. |
OInd. |
Avest. |
|||
phonological input |
phonetic output |
Early |
Late |
|
phonologically |
graphically |
–kwe |
[–kwe] |
*–èe |
*–èa |
–ca |
/-ca/ |
<-ca> |
gwˈenh2
|
[gwénəah]
|
*ǰénə |
*ǰánə |
jáni- |
/jani-/ |
<jaini-> |
gwʰˈen-ti |
[gwʰénti] |
*ǰʰénti |
*ǰʰánti |
hánti |
/janti/ |
<jainti> |
kiˈeue–toi |
[ki̯éu̯etoi̯] |
*èi̯éu̯etoi̯ |
*èi̯áu̯atai̯ |
cyávate |
/ši̯au̯a-/ |
<š́(ii)auua–> |
iungˈenti |
[i̯ungénti] |
*i̯unǰénti |
*i̯unǰénti |
yuñjánti |
*/i̯unjanti/ |
* <yunjǝnti> |
gʰˈedeti |
[gʰédeti] |
*ǰʰédeti |
*ǰʰádati |
*hadati |
|
|
5.8. The Slavic palatalizations
5.8.1. First palatalization
N.B. The rule must be applied before the monophthongization of *oi̯,
*ai̯ > ì (cf. below), but after the effects of the ruki-rule (cf. )
leading from *s > x:
5.8.2. Second palatalization
5.8.2.1. East- and South-Slavic:
5.8.2.2. West-Slavic:
N.B.: The conditioning vowel must be the result of a or o plus i (diphthong,
later merging with ì or ī).
5.8.3. Third palatalization:
5.8.3.1. East- and South-Slavic:
5.8.3.2. West-Slavic:
Copyright Jost Gippert