THE EVOLUTION OF THE INDO EUROPEAN VOWEL SYSTEM
Authors
Bernard H. Bichakjian
The most common reconstruction of the ancestral vowel system is the one with a unique functional vowel 'e', combined with three 'h'-like sounds, called laryngeals and represented with the symbols H1, H2, and H3. It is known from Arabic, where the corresponding pharyngeals exist, that, while H1 has no effect on the adjacent vowel, H2 gives it an 'a'-color and H3 an 'o'-color; so that when the I-E laryngeals later disappeared, two sets of changes took place: 'e' became 'a' and 'o' when the adjoining laryngeals were respectively H2, and H3, and moreover, all vowels were lengthened when the disappearing laryngeal was post-vocalic. It is therefore the loss of the ancestral laryngeals that led to the development of a system of ten vowels - the syllabic variants of 'j', and 'w' eventually combined with a following laryngeal, would provide the other four. These were fully functional vowels, free from distributional restrictions imposed by the previous pattern of alternations. Of course, a ten vowel system subdivided along a long/short dichotomy is not the ultimate panacea, but the development of ten distinctive syllabic peaks gave a huge boost to the word-building potential of the ancestral language.
This is not to say that before the loss of the laryngeals the functional capabilities of the existing system were almost nil. By placing the 'e' before or after the three laryngeals, the protolanguage could produce the equivalent of six vowels: ' H1e' (= 'e'), ' H2e', (= 'a'), ' H3e' (= 'o'), 'eH1' (= 'e:'), 'eH2' (= 'a:'), and 'eH3' (= 'o:'), but at what cost? Allan Keiler has pointed out that the I-E laryngeals "represent the most complex sounds in a universal phonological hierarchy" (1970:88).
Proto-Indo-European language
The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages.
Indo-European languages: Anatolian | Indo-Iranian | Greek | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | Armenian | Balto-Slavic | Tocharian | Albanian
Anatolian
These Anatolian languages were spoken in Anatolia, or Asia Minor, from about the 2d millennium B.C. and gradually became extinct during the first few centuries A.D. They include Cuneiform Hittite, Hieroglyphic Hittite, Luwian (also called Luvian or Luish), Palaic, Lycian, and Lydian.
Indo-Iranian
Indo-Iranian languages are the eastern-most group of the living Indo-European languages. They are well represented among the oldest records of Indo-European languages. These originate in the area surrounding the southern part of the Urals, and early on split as they settled east and south of the Caspian Sea in Iran, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan.
Indo-Aryan languages:
Sanskrit
Assamese language
Bengali language
Gujarati language
Hindi language
Maithili language
Marathi language
Nepali language
Oriya language
Pali
Punjabi language
Romany language - the language of Gypsies
Sindhi language
Singhalese language
Urdu
Dardic languages:
Dameli language
Domaaki language
Gawar-Bati language
Kalasha language
Kashmiri language
Khowar language
Kohistani language
Ningalami language
Pashayi language
Phalura language
Shina language
Shumashti language
Nuristani languages:
Ashkun language
Kamviri language
Kati language (Bashgali)
Prasuni language (Wasi-Weri)
Tregami language
Waigali language (Kalasha-Ala)
Iranian languages:
Persian language
Avestan language (extinct)
Pahlavi - "Middle Persian"
Pashto language
Dari language of Afghanistan
Tajik language
Ossetian language
Kurdish language
Balochi language
Talysh language
Tat language
Dari language of Zoroastrians
Ancient Greek
By the 16th cent. B.C., Greek-speaking people were established in Greece, probably having come as invaders from Illyrian north.
Italic languages
The Italic subfamily is a member of the Centum branch of the Indo-European language group. Italic has two branches:
Sabellic including:
Oscan, spoken in the south-central region of the Italian peninsula
Umbrian (not to be confused with the modern Umbrian dialect of Italian), spoken in the north-central region
Latino-Faliscan including:
Faliscan - spoken in the area around Falerii Veteres (modern Civita Castellana) north of the city of Rome
Latin, originally spoken in west-central Italy
The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Latin inscriptions dating to the 6th or 5th centuries BCE. The alphabets used are based on the Etruscan alphabet, which is itself based on the Greek alphabet.
Celtic languages
Celtic languages are a branch of the Indo-European languages. They were spoken across western Europe in ancient times, but are now limited to a few enclaves in the British Isles and on the peninsula of Brittany in France.
There are four main groups of Celtic languages, of which the first two are now long extinct:
Gaulish and its close relatives, Lepontic, Noric, and Galatian. These languages were once spoken in a wide arc from France to Turkey and from the Netherlands to northern Italy.
Celtiberian, anciently spoken in Aragon and elsewhere in Spain.
Goidelic, including Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, and Shelta
Brythonic, including Welsh, Breton, Cornish, Cumbric, Westcountry Brythonic, Ivernic, and possibly Pictish
These four groups are traditionally split into two branches, but there are two competing schemata. The first links Gaulish with Brythonic in a P-Celtic node, leaving Celtiberian and Goidelic together as Q-Celtic. The differences between P and Q languages are most easily seen in the word for son, mac in Q (hard K sound) and map in P languages.
Family tree
All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from Proto-Germanic.
West Germanic
High German
German
Middle German
East Middle German
Standard German (Hochdeutsch)
Luxembourgish
West Middle German
Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
Upper German
Alemannic German
Austro-Bavarian German
Lombardic (extinct)
Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
Texas German
Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
Wymysojer (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish and Scots)
Low German
Low Franconian
Dutch
Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
Low Saxon
Standard Low Saxon
Plautdietsch (Mennonite "Low German")
East Low German
Island German
Frisian
English. Huge influx of Latinate vocabulary and grammar, most via Norman French. Many dialects, including International English
British English
Received Pronunciation
Estuary English
Cockney
East Anglian
Scouse
Geordie
Yorkshire
Black Country
West Country
Hiberno-English
Scottish English
American English
Boston dialect
Southern American English
Standard Midwestern
General American
Newfoundland English
New York-New Jersey English
Liberian English
Commonwealth English
Caribbean English
Jamaican English
Australian English
Canadian English
Hong Kong English (Hong Kong is no longer a member of the Commonwealth)
New Zealand English
South African English
Indian English
Singlish (Singaporean English)
Manglish (Malaysian English)
Scots
Insular Scots
Northern Scots incl. Doric
Central Scots
Southern Scots
Ulster Scots
Urban Scots (City dialects)
Söl'ring
Yola
East Germanic (descending from Gothic)
Crimean Gothic (extinct in the 1800s)
Vandalic (extinct)
Burgundian (extinct)
North Germanic (descending from Old Norse):
West (Insular) Nordic
New Norwegian (Nynorsk)
Icelandic
Faroese
Norn (Extinct)
East (Continental) Nordic
Danish
Standard Norwegian (Bokmål and Riksmål) (Dano-Norwegian)
Scanian
Swedish
Armenian language
Armenian language, member of the Thraco-Phrygian subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages.
Baltic languages
Baltic languages, a subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages. The Indo-European subfamily to which the Baltic languages appear to be closest is the Slavic.
West Baltic languages
Galindan language
Old Prussian language
Sudovian (Yotvingian) language
East Baltic languages
Curonian language
Lithuanian language
Latvian language
Samogitian language
Selonian language
Semigallian language
Tocharian languages
Tocharian is one of the most obscure branches of the Indo-European language group. The two languages -- Tocharian A (Turfanian or East Tocharian) and Tocharian B (Kuchean or West Tocharian) -- that made up this group have both been long extinct. The languages themselves bear a closer relationship to the Celtic or early Germanic languages than to other Indo-European languages.
Both languages were once spoken in the Tarim Basin in Central Asia, now the Xinjiang province of China.
Albanian language
Albanian or Shqip is a language spoken in the south-eastern Europe, Illyricum (Albania, Kosova, Serbia and Montenegro, Republic of Macedonia), Greece, Turkey, Italy, and other countries.
Indo-European studies
As PIE is not directly attested, all PIE sounds and words are reconstructed
using the comparative method. The
standard convention is to mark unattested forms with an asterisk: *wódr̥
"water", *ḱwṓn "dog", *tréyes
"three (masculine)", etc. Many of the words in the modern
Indo-European languages are derived from such "protowords" via
regular sound change (e.g., Grimm's law).
All Indo-European languages are inflected languages (although Modern English is much less inflected), and by comparative reconstruction it is highly assured that at least the latest stage of the common PIE mother languages (i.e. Late PIE) was an inflectional (and more suffixing than prefixing) language. However, by means of internal reconstruction and morphological (re-)analysis of the reconstructed, seemingly most archaic PIE word forms it has recently been shown to be very probable that at a more distant stage (then: Early) PIE may have been a root-inflectional language like e.g. Proto-Semitic. As a consequence, it seems to be highly probable that PIE once was of the root-and-pattern morphological type (literature: Pooth (2004): "Ablaut und autosegmentale Morphologie: Theorie der uridg. Wurzelflexion", in: Arbeitstagung "Indogermanistik, Germanistik, Linguistik" in Jena, Sept. 2002).
Other works have tried to show that the Caucasian languages, particularly the Northwest Caucasian family, spoken in Georgia and Turkey, may be the closest relatives to the Indo-European stock. While these are not widely-held theories, substantial evidence investigated by the linguist John Colarusso seems to support their theory. In particular, the one-vowel hypothesis which has been put forward for Indo-European would be borne out by the usage of substantial secondary articulation like that found in the Northwest Caucasian languages and, indeed, in the hypothesized PIE. Also, the Northwest Caucasian languages preserve a large number of guttural phonemes which may be the modern equivalents of PIE "laryngeals".
Proto-Indo-European is conjectured to have used the following phonemes:
|
Proto-Indo-European consonants |
|||||
|
CONSONANTS |
labials |
coronals |
palatovelars |
velars |
labiovelars |
|
voiceless stops |
p |
t |
ḱ |
k |
kw |
|
voiced stops |
b |
d |
ǵ |
g |
gw |
|
aspirated stops |
bh |
dh |
ǵh |
gh |
gwh |
|
nasals |
m |
n |
|
|
|
|
fricatives |
|
s |
h1, h2, h3 |
||
|
liquids, glides |
w |
r, l |
y |
|
|
The table gives the most common notation in modern publications. Variant transcriptions are given below. Raised h stands for aspiration. The existence of voiceless aspirate stops in the proto-language is (ph, th, ḱh, kh, kwh) is disputed. According to the glottalic theory, the "voiced unaspirated stops" of the system as described above were phonetically ejectives, and the "voiced aspirated stops" were phonetically unaspirated.
p, b, bh
t, d, dh
ḱ, ǵ, ǵh (also transcribed k', g', g'h or k̑, g̑, g̑h or k̂, ĝ, ĝh)
[k]- or [g]-like sounds which underwent a characteristic change in the Satem languages; they were possibly palatalized velars ([kj], [gj]) in Proto-Indo-European.
k, g, gh.
kw, gw, gwh (also transcribed kv, gv, gvh or ku̯, gu̯, gu̯h)
Raised w stands for labialization, or lip-rounding accompanying the articulation of velar sounds ([kw] is a sound similar to English qu in queen).
s. The 'laryngeals' may have been fricatives, but there is no consensus as to their phonetic realization. There were also fricatives allophonic of t, s, usually transcribed þ, z.
The symbols h1, h2 and h3 stand for three hypothetical "laryngeal" phonemes. In non-laryngealistic theories, the corresponding phoneme is sometimes called schwa indogermanicum and transcribed ə.
r, l, m, n, with vocalic allophones r̥, l̥, m̥, n̥.
w, y (also transcribed u̯, i̯) with vocalic allophones u, i.
Other long vowels may have appeared already in the proto-language by compensatory lengthening: ī, ū, r̥̄, l̥̄, m̥̄, n̥̄.
Indo-European had a characteristic general ablaut sequence that contrasted the vowel phonemes o/e/ə/Ø through the same root.
Indo-European Phonetic System
1. The phonemic
inventory (traditional interpretation)
1.1. Non-sonorants (obstruents and laryngeals):
|
Stops |
Tenues |
Tenues
aspiratae |
Mediae |
Mediae
aspiratae |
|
Labials |
p |
ph |
b |
bh |
|
Dentals |
t |
th |
d |
dh |
|
Palatals |
ḱ |
ḱh |
ǵ |
ǵh |
|
Velars |
k |
kh |
g |
gh |
|
Labiovelars |
kw |
kwh |
gw |
gwh |
|
Sibilants |
voiceless |
voiceless-aspirated |
voiced |
|
|
Dental |
s |
/ |
/ |
|
|
Laryngeals |
h1 |
h2 |
h3 |
1.2. Sonorants (vowels, nasals and liquids):
|
Nasals and Liquids |
r |
l |
m |
n |
|
Vowels |
front |
central |
back |
|||
|
short |
long |
short |
long |
short |
long |
|
|
High |
i |
|
|
|
u |
|
|
Non-high |
e |
ē |
a |
ā |
o |
ō |
1.3. The ablaut system:
|
|
Primary (e-) grades |
Secondary (o-) grades |
(a-) grades |
|
Long grades |
ē |
ō |
(ā) |
|
Normal (full) grades |
e |
o |
(a) |
|
Zero (reduced) grade |
Ø |
||
1.4. PIE phonemes arranged by distinctive features
|
|
p |
ph |
b |
bh |
t |
th |
d |
dh |
ḱ |
ḱh |
ǵ |
ǵh |
k |
kh |
g |
gh |
kw |
kwh |
gw |
gwh |
s |
h1 |
h2 |
h3 |
|
consonant |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
obstruent |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
syllabic |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
nasal |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
low |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
high |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
back |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
|
round |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
|
anterior |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
|
coronal |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
|
lateral |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
continuant |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
|
fricative |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
|
aspirated |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
|
voiced |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
|
tense |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
|
r |
l |
m |
n |
i |
u |
e |
ē |
o |
ō |
a |
ā |
|
consonant |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
obstruent |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
syllabic |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
nasal |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
low |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
high |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
back |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
round |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
|
anterior |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
coronal |
+ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
lateral |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
continuant |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
fricative |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
aspirated |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
voiced |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
tense |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
1.5. PIE phonemes grouped under cover symbols:
|
|
p |
ph |
b |
bh |
t |
th |
d |
dh |
ḱ |
ḱh |
ǵ |
ǵh |
k |
kh |
g |
gh |
kw |
kwh |
gw |
gwh |
s |
h1 |
h2 |
h3 |
|
C |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Z |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
|
P |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
|
Ph |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
B |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
|
Bh |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
Ψ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
|
Γ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
|
Δ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
|
Φ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
|
S |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
|
H |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Π |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
T |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
|
Ξ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
Ḱ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
X |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
Q |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
K |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
Kh |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
G |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
Gh |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
|
r |
l |
m |
n |
i |
u |
e |
ē |
o |
ō |
a |
ā |
|
C |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
V |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
U |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
Ω |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
|
E |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
O |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
|
A |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
|
F |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
|
W |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
|
M |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
R |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
L |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
N |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
I |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
J |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
– |
– |
|
Y |
– |
– |
– |
– |
– |
+ |
– |
– |
+ |
+ |
– |
– |
2. Phonemes and their phonetic realization (overview)
2.1. Non-sonorants (obstruents and laryngeals)
|
Stops |
Tenues |
Tenues aspiratae |
Mediae |
Mediae
aspiratae |
|
Labials |
p |
ph |
b |
bh |
|
[p, b1] |
[ph, p2] |
[b, p3] |
[bh, p2] |
|
|
Dentals |
t |
th |
d |
dh |
|
[th, t2] |
[dh, t2] |
|||
|
Palatals |
ḱ |
ḱh |
ǵ |
ǵh |
|
[ḱh, ḱ2] |
[ǵh, ǵ2] |
|||
|
Velars |
k |
kh |
g |
gh |
|
[kh, k2] |
[gh, g2] |
|||
|
Labiovelars |
kw |
kwh |
gw |
gwh |
|
[kwh, kw2] |
[gwh, gw2] |
|||
|
Sibilants |
voiceless |
voiceless aspirated |
voiced |
voiced aspirated |
|
Dental |
s |
|
|
|
|
Laryngeals |
h1 |
h2 |
h3 |
|
|
[Ø10] |
||||
Notes:
1. Voiced realization by regressive assimilation to following voiced obstruent.
2. Non-aspirated realization by neutralization in word final position (also before s).
3. Voiceless realization by regressive assimilation to following voiceless obstruent.
4. Aspirated realization according to Bartholomae's law.
5. Aspirated realization by regressive assimilation to following h2.
6. By assibilation in position before dental stops.
7. By dissimilation in position before velar (/ palatal / labiovelar) stop ("thorn")?
8. Under unclear conditions: "ruki".
9. Shewa-anaptyxis with colouring.
10. In word final position (facultative realization according to Kuiper's law).
2.2. Sonorants (vowels, nasals and liquids):
|
Vowels |
front |
central |
back |
|||
|
short |
long |
short |
long |
short |
long |
|
|
High |
i |
|
|
|
u |
|
|
[i; ī12] |
[u; ū12] |
|||||
|
[i̯13] |
[u̯13] |
|||||
|
Non-high |
e |
ē |
a |
ā |
o |
ō |
|
[ē8] |
[a] |
[ā] |
[o] |
[ō] |
||
|
|
[ā12] |
|
[ō12] |
|
||
Notes:
1. When syllabic.
2. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal.
3. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal.
4. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal.
5. In position before tautosyllabic laryngeal.
6. By assimilation to adjacent h2 (a-"colouring").
7. By assimilation to adjacent h3 (o-"colouring").
8. No assimilation to adjacent laryngeals ("colouring") according to Eichner's law.
9. Substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h1.
10. "a-Colouring" plus substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h2.
11. "o-Colouring" plus substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic h3.
12. Substitutional lengthening in position before tauto-syllabic laryngeals.
13. Non-syllabic realization in position before or after syllabic segment.
3. Sample: Obstruent p
|
PIE |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
|
|||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
condition / meaning |
Alb. |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. |
Goth. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
||
|
p |
p |
#_V |
p |
p |
p |
π |
h |
p |
|
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
pˈotis |
pótis |
‘lord, master, husband’ (nom.sg.m.) |
pata |
pátiḥ |
paitiš |
πόσις |
|
potis |
|
-faþs |
|
(-pod-) |
-pats |
|
pats |
petso |
||
|
ph2tˈēr |
pəa(h)tḗr |
‘father’ (nom.sg.m.) |
ati |
|
|
πατήρ |
hayr |
pater |
athir |
(fadar) |
fater |
|
|
|
pācar |
pācer |
||
|
pəa(h)tḗ |
|
pitā́ |
(p(i))tā |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
pˈōds |
pο̄́ts |
‘foot’ (nom./acc.sg.) |
posh-të |
pā́t |
|
πούς |
|
(pēs) |
|
(fotus) |
fuoz |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
pˈodm |
pódm̥ |
|
pā́dam |
pādəm |
πόδα |
otn |
(pedem) |
|
fotu |
fuoz |
|
|
patan |
(pe) |
(pai) |
|||
|
pˈelh1u- |
pél՚u- |
‘much’ (masc./ntr. stem) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
il |
filu |
filu |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
plh1ˈu- |
pl̥՚ú- |
plot |
purú- |
pouru- |
(πολύ-) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
pˈeḱus |
péḱus |
‘livestock’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
páœuḥ |
pasuš |
|
|
(pecus) |
|
faihu |
fihu |
|
pekùs |
|
|
|
||
|
pˈontēh2s |
póntē(h)s |
‘way, path’ (nom./gen.sg.) |
|
pánthāḥ |
pantå̄ |
(πόντος) |
hown |
(pons) |
|
|
|
pǫtĭ |
|
|
|
|
||
|
pnth2ˈes |
pn̥thh2as |
|
patháḥ |
paϑō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
p |
p |
#_V*Q |
p |
p |
p |
π |
|
c |
c |
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
pˈenkwe |
pénkwe |
‘five’ (indecl.) |
pęsë |
páñca |
panca |
πέντε |
hing |
quīnque |
cóic |
fimf |
fimf |
(pêtĭ) |
(penkì) |
|
päñ |
piœ |
||
|
pˈekweti |
pékweti |
‘cooks’ (3.sg.prs.) |
pjek |
pácati |
pacaiti |
|
|
coquit |
|
|
|
peèetŭ |
(kẽpa) |
|
(pakät) |
(pakṣäṃ) |
||
|
-pˈokwos |
-pókwos |
‘-cook’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
-κόπος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
p |
p |
#s_V*Ξ |
p |
p |
p |
Κ*π |
|
p |
u̯ |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
(s)pˈeḱieti |
(s)péḱi̯eti |
‘looks’ (3.sg.prs.) |
pashë |
páœyati |
spasiieiti |
σκέπτε(ται) |
|
specit |
|
|
(spehōt) |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
p |
p |
#_C |
|
p |
f |
π |
|
p |
|
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
prˈo |
pró |
‘for(-)’ (prep./prev.) |
për |
prá |
frā |
πρό |
|
pro- |
ro- |
fra- |
fir- |
pro- |
pra- |
|
|
|
||
|
plˈeueti |
pléu̯eti |
‘floats’ (3.sg.prs.) |
illyr. Plavis |
(plávate) |
(frauua-) |
πλέει |
|
(plovet) |
|
|
(flew-) |
plovetŭ |
|
|
|
|
||
|
p |
p |
V́_V |
p |
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
|
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
ˈuperos |
úperos |
‘upper’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
úparaḥ |
uparō |
ὕπερος |
|
(superus) |
|
(ufaro) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
nˈepōts |
népōts |
‘nephew’ (nom./acc.sg.) |
nip |
nápāt |
napå̄ |
|
|
nepōs |
nia |
|
neuo |
|
(nepuotis) |
|
|
|
||
|
nˈepotm |
népotm̥ |
|
nápātam |
napātəm |
(νέποδ-) |
|
(nepōtem) |
|
|
|
|
(nepuotį) |
|
|
|
|||
|
p |
p |
V_V́ |
|
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
|
b |
b |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
upˈeri |
upéri |
‘over’ (adv.) |
|
upári |
upairi |
(ὑπέρ) |
ver |
(super) |
(for-) |
|
ubir |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
h1ˈepi |
՚épi |
‘above, on’ (adv.) |
épërë |
ápi |
aipi |
ἔπι |
ew |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
p |
p |
V_PV́ |
|
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
|
b |
b |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
septˈm |
septḿ̥ |
‘seven’ (indecl.) |
shta-të |
saptá |
hapta |
ἑπτά |
ewtՙn |
septem |
(secht) |
(sibun) |
(sibun) |
sedmĭ |
(septynì) |
|
ṣpät |
ṣukt |
||
|
p |
p |
V_nV́ |
u̯ |
p |
p |
π |
v,w |
p |
u̯ |
f |
f |
p |
p |
p |
p |
p |
||
|
suˈepnos |
su̯épnos |
‘sleep’ (nom.sg.) |
|
svápnaḥ |
xvafnō |
|
somnus |
|
|
(svefn) |
(swefn) |
|
|
|
späṃ |
spane |
||
|
suˈopnos |
su̯ópnos |
|
|
kՙown |
(suan) |
|
|
|
sãpnas |
|
|
|
||||||
|
sˈupnos |
súpnos |
gjumë |
|
|
ὕπνος |
|
|
|
sŭnŭ |
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
p |
b |
V_B |
p |
b |
|
β |
|
b |
b |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
-pdo- |
-bdo- |
‘-foot-’ (in comp.) |
|
(upá-)bda- |
(fra-)bda- |
(ἐπί-)βδ(α)- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
piph3ˈenti |
pibՙónti |
‘drink’ (3.pl.prs.) |
pi- |
píbanti |
|
|
|
bibunt |
ibat |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
h2eph3ōn |
habՙōn |
‘watery’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
aub |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
septmˈih2 |
sebdmíh |
‘seven’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
sedmĭ |
|
|
|
|
||
4. Rules of
phonetic realization
4.1. Neutralizations and assimilations among obstruents
4.1.1. Regressive voice assimilation:
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
Ξ → Γ / _ Γ |
Examples:
|
PIE |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
|
|||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Alb. |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. |
Goth. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
||
|
nisdˈos |
nizdós |
‘nest’ (nom.sg.m.) |
ndejt |
|
|
|
nist |
nīdus |
net |
|
nest |
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
niždós |
|
nīḍáḥ, nīḷáḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
h2ˈosdos |
hózdos |
‘branch’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
ὄζος |
|
|
|
asts |
ast |
|
|
(ḫašduer) |
|
|
||
|
sˈi-sd-eti |
sízdeti |
‘sit’ (3.pl.prs.) |
|
|
|
ἵζει |
|
sīdit |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
síždeti > sḯdeti |
|
sī́dati |
(ni-)šhiδaiti |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
misdhˈom |
mizdhóm |
‘salary, rent’ (acc.sg.mn. / nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
μισϑόν |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
miždhóm |
|
mīḍhám |
mı̄̆ždəm |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
misdhˈeh2 |
mizdháh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(mizdo) |
(miata) |
mĭzdá |
|
|
|
|
|||
|
miždháh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
mns-dhēh1-s |
mn̥zdhē(՚)s |
‘reasoner’ (nom.sg.m.) |
mendja |
medhā́ḥ |
mazdå̄ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
-pdo- |
-bdo- |
‘-foot-’ (in comp.) |
|
upá-bda- |
fra-bda- |
ἐπί-βδα- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
||
|
pˈiph3enti |
píbՙonti |
‘drink’ (3.pl.prs.) |
|
píbanti |
|
|
|
bibunt |
ibat |
|
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|
|
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|
||
|
h2eph3ōn |
habՙōn |
‘watery’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
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|
|
aub |
|
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||
|
septmˈih2 |
sebdmíh |
‘seven’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
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|
sedmĭ |
|
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||
4.1.2. Regressive devoicing:
4.1.2.1. General rule:
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
Γ → Ξ / _ Ξ |
4.1.2.2. Problem of relative chronology: Lachmann's law (valid for Latin):
Notation with cover symbols:
|
V → V̄ / _ PP |
Examples:
|
PIE |
cp. |
Proto-Latin |
Latin |
|||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
|
regular development |
morpholog. reanalysis |
Lachmann's lengthening |
Old Latin |
Classic |
|
h3reǵ-tˈos |
ՙreḱtós |
‘directed, right’ |
(Greek ὀρεκτός, YAv. (raštəm), Goth. (raiht-) |
*rectos |
*reg-tos |
*[re·gtos] |
*rēctos |
rēctus |
|
teg-tˈos |
tektós |
‘thatched’ |
Greek *στεκτός |
*tektos |
*teg-tos |
*[te·gtos] |
*tēctos |
tēctus |
|
h2eǵ-tˈos |
haḱtós |
‘driven’ |
Greek ἀκτός, OIr. acht |
*aktos |
*ag-tos |
*[a·gtos] |
*āctos |
āctus |
|
h2ˈeg-tōr |
háktōr |
‘driver’ |
Greek ἄκτωρ |
*aktōr |
*ag-tōr |
*[a·gtōr] |
*āctōr |
|
|
iug-tˈos |
i̯uktós |
‘joined’ |
OInd. yuktáḥ, Av. yuxta-, Alb. zgjedhë, OEngl. iuht |
*iuktos |
*iug-tos |
*[i̯u·gtos] > [i̯u·ngtos] |
*iūnctos |
iūnctus |
|
uid-tˈos |
u̯itstós |
‘known’ |
Greek (ἄ-)Ϝιστος, OInd. vittáḥ, OAv. vistō, OSax. wis, OHG (gi-)wis |
*u̯ittsos |
*u̯id-tsos |
*[u̯i·dtsos] |
*u̯īssos |
uīsus |
|
h1ed-tˈos |
՚etstós |
‘eaten’ |
OIr. es |
*ettsos |
*ed-tsos |
*[e·dtsos] |
*ēssos |
ēsus |
|
Exceptions: |
||||||||
|
-sˈed-tis |
-sétstis |
‘sitting’ |
OInd. (ní-)ṣattiḥ, YAv. (ni-)šasti- |
*-settsis |
|
|
*-sessis |
-sessiō |
|
-sed-tˈos |
-setstós |
‘sitten’ |
OInd. -sattáḥ |
*-settsos |
|
|
*-sessos |
-sessus |
|
skhid-tós |
skhitstós |
‘split’ |
Greek σχιστός, YAv. (a-)sistō, Alb. geg. shkü- |
*skittsos |
|
|
*scissos |
scissus |
4.1.2.3.
Unification of rules:
|
|
4.1.3. Deaspiration in word final position (also before word final s):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
Φ → Δ / _ # | _ s # |
Examples:
|
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
||||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Alb. |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. |
Goth. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
|
|
dhrˈiGh-s |
dhríks |
‘hair’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
ϑρίξ |
dredhë |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
dhriGh-ˈes |
dhriGhés |
(gen.sg.f.) |
|
|
τριχός |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
4.1.4. Progressive aspiration (Bartholomae's law;
facultative rule in PIE?):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
Δ → Φ / Φ _ →→ Φ → Bh / Bh _ |
Examples:
|
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Alb. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
|
bhudh-tˈos |
bhutstós |
‘noticed, become aware’ (PPP) |
|
|
|
(ἄ-)πυστος |
|
|
|
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|
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|
bhudzdhós |
buddháḥ |
(bu)bullimë |
|
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||
|
uidh-tós |
u̯itstós |
‘divided’ (PPP) |
|
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|
|
(dī-)vīsus |
|
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|
|
u̯idzdhós |
viddháḥ |
ve, vejushë |
|
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|
|
||
|
iudh-tˈos |
i̯utstós |
‘instigated (to fight)’ (PPP) |
|
|
|
|
|
iussus |
|
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|
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|
i̯udzdhós |
yuddháḥ |
|
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|
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|
||
|
lubh-tˈeh2 |
luptáh |
‘desired, beloved’ (PPP nom.sg.f.) |
|
lumë, lum |
|
λυπτά |
|
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|
lubdháh |
lubdhā́ |
|
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||
|
uéǵh-tōr |
u̯éḱtōr |
‘carrier’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
vjedh |
|
|
|
vectōr |
|
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|
|
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|
u̯éǵdhōr |
voḍhā́, voḷhā́ |
|
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|
||
|
ueǵh-tˈos |
u̯eḱtós |
‘carried, transported’ (PPP) |
|
vjedhun |
vašta- |
|
|
vectus |
fecht |
|
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|
u̯eǵdhós |
|
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||
|
uǵh-tˈos |
uḱtós |
|
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|
uǵdhós |
ūḍháḥ, ūḷháḥ |
udhë, urë |
|
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|
||
4.1.5. Regressive aspiration by assimilation to following h2 (facultative rule in PIE?):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
Δ → Φ /_ h2 |
Examples:
|
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Alb. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
|
sth2-tˈos |
sthhəatós |
‘having stood’ (PPP) |
sthitáḥ |
më-shtet, p-shtet |
|
|
|
status |
-ssad |
|
|
|
stãtas |
|
|
|
|
stəa(h)tós |
|
|
|
στατός |
|
|
|
|
||||||||
|
sth2-tˈim |
sthhəatím |
‘standing’ (acc.sg.f.) |
sthítiṃ |
|
|
|
|
statim |
|
(staþ) |
stat |
|
|
|
|
|
|
stəa(h)tím |
|
|
|
στάσιν |
|
|
|
|
||||||||
|
pro-sth2-os |
prosthhos |
‘standing forward’ (nom.sg.m.) |
prasthaḥ |
breshtë |
|
|
|
|
ross |
|
|
prostŭ |
|
|
|
|
|
mˈeǵh2 |
meǵhhəa |
‘big’ (nom.sg.n.) |
máhi |
madh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
meǵəa(h) |
|
|
|
μέγα |
mec |
|
|
|
||||||||
|
meǵ |
|
|
|
|
|
mek |
|
|
||||||||
|
mˈeǵh2-istos |
méǵhhištos |
‘biggest’ (nom.sg.m.) |
máhiṣṭhaḥ |
|
mazištō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
méǵ(h)istos |
|
|
μέγιστος |
|
|
|
|
|||||||||
|
plth2ˈus |
pl̥thhuš |
‘broad’ (nom.sg.m.) |
pṛthúḥ |
|
pərəϑu- |
|
|
|
leth |
|
|
|
(platùs) |
|
|
|
|
pl̥t(h)us |
|
fletë |
|
πλατύς |
|
|
|
|
||||||||
|
plth2uˈih2 |
pl̥thhəau̯íh |
‘earth’ (nom.sg.f.) |
pṛthivī́ |
|
pərəϑβī- |
|
|
|
Cymr. Llydaw |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
pl̥təa(h)u̯íh |
|
ledh |
Πλαταια- |
|
|
|
|
|||||||||
|
pl̥t(h)u̯íh |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||
|
rˈot-h2-os |
róthhos |
‘cart’ (nom.sg.m.) |
ráthaḥ |
|
raϑō |
|
|
|
roth |
|
rad |
|
rãtas |
|
|
|
|
rót(h)os |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||||||
|
rot-eh2 |
rotah |
‘wheel’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
rrotë, rreth |
|
|
|
rota |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Problematic cases (implying loss of laryngeal): |
||||||||||||||||
|
dhugh2tˈēr |
dhughhəatḗr |
‘daughter’ (nom.sg.f.) |
duhitā́ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
(kbatra) Lyc. |
ckācar |
tkācer |
|
dhugəa(h)tḗr |
|
|
|
ϑυγάτηρ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
dhugdhḗr |
|
|
dugədā |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
dhuktḗr |
|
|
|
|
dowstr |
|
|
dauhtar |
tochter |
dŭštĭ |
duktė̃ |
|||||
4.1.6. Assibilation of dental stops before dental stops:
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
T → TS / _ T |
Examples:
|
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Alb. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
|
urt-tˈos |
u̯r̥tstós |
‘turned’ (PPP) |
vṛttáḥ |
|
|
|
|
vorsus |
fres- |
|
|
|
vir̃stas |
|
|
|
|
bhudh-tˈos |
bhutstós |
‘noticed, become aware’ (PPP) |
|
|
|
(ἄ-)πυστος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
bhudzdhós |
buddháḥ |
(bu)bullimë |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
iudh-tˈos |
i̯utstós |
‘instigated (to fight)’ (PPP) |
|
|
|
|
|
iussus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
i̯udzdhós |
yuddháḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
uidh-tós |
u̯itstós |
divided |
|
|
|
|
|
(dī-)vīsus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
u̯idzdhós |
viddháḥ |
ve, vejushë |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
uid-tˈos |
u̯itstós |
‘known’ (PPP) |
vittáḥ |
|
vistō |
(ἄ-)Ϝιστος |
|
uīsus |
|
wis |
(gi-)wis |
|
|
|
|
|
|
h1ˈēd-ti |
՚ḗtsti |
‘eats’ (3.sg.prs.) |
(átti) |
|
|
(ἔδεται subj. > fut.) |
|
*ēst |
(ys) |
|
(ist) |
ìstŭ |
ė́sti |
ēšzi |
|
|
|
h1ed-dh·i |
՚eddhí |
‘eat!’ (2.sg.ipv.) |
addhí |
|
|
*ἐσϑί > ἐσϑίω |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
h1ed-tˈos |
՚etstós |
‘eaten’ (PPP) |
|
|
|
|
|
ēsus |
es |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-sˈed-tis |
-sétstis |
‘sitting’ (nom.sg.f.) |
(ní-)ṣattiḥ |
|
(ni-)šasti- |
|
|
-sessiō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
-sed-tˈos |
-setstós |
‘sitten’ (PPP) |
-sattáḥ |
shesh |
|
|
|
-sessus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
uoid-th2e |
u̯oi̯tsthha |
‘you have known’ (2.sg.pf.) |
véttha |
|
vōistā |
(Ϝ)οῖσϑα |
|
|
|
waist |
uueist(u) |
(vìsi) |
|
|
|
|
|
sḱhid-tós |
sḱhitstós |
‘split’ (PPP) |
|
|
(a-)sistō |
σχιστός |
|
scissus |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Problematic cases (implying loss of laryngeals): |
||||||||||||||||
|
dhe-dhh1-tˈoi |
dhedh՚ətói̯ |
‘puts for himself’ (3.sg.prs.med.) |
|
|
|
(τίϑεται) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dhetstói̯ |
dhatté |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
dhedzdhói̯ |
|
|
dazdē |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
de-dh3-tˈoi |
dedՙətói̯ |
‘gives for himself’ (3.sg.prs.med.) |
|
|
|
(διδοται) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
detstói̯ |
datté |
dhashtë |
dastē |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
4.1.7. Dissimilation of dental stops before velar stops ("thorn"
rule):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
T → Þ / _ Ξ |
Examples:
|
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Alb. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
|
h2ˈrtḱos |
hə́artœḱós |
‘bear’ |
|
|
|
|
ursus |
art |
ari |
|
|
|
ḫartka- |
|
|
|
hə́arḱtœós |
ṛ́kṣaḥ |
aršō |
ἄρκτος |
arǰ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||
|
tḱˈitis |
tœḱítis |
‘settlement’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ḱtœítiš |
kṣitíḥ |
šiti- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
ḱtœítis |
|
|
κτίσις |
|
|
|
fshati |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
dhǵhuH-m |
dŸǵhúhm |
‘fish’ (acc.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dŸǵhúhm̥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
ǵdŸhúhm |
|
|
ἰχϑὺν |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
ǵdŸhúhm̥ |
|
|
|
jukn |
|
|
|
|
|
žùvį́ |
|
|
|
||
|
dhǵhˈom-i-os |
dŸǵhómii̯os |
‘earthly’ (nom.sg.m.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ǵdŸhómii̯os |
kṣámiyaḥ |
|
χϑόνιος |
|
|
duine |
illyr. Δω- |
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
dhǵhem-iˈeh2 |
dŸǵhemi̯áh |
‘land’ (nom.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
ǵdŸhemi̯ah |
|
|
|
|
|
|
dhe |
|
zemljá |
žẽmė |
|
|
|
||
|
dhǵhm-ˈes |
dŸǵhmés |
‘earth’ (gen.sg.f.) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
dagnaš |
|
|
|
ǵdŸhmés |
kṣmáḥ |
zəmō |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
dŸhmés |
jmáḥ |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||
|
dŸhm̥mes |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
||
|
dhǵhm-ˈei |
dŸǵhmei̯ |
‘earth’ (dat.sg.f.) |
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ǵdŸhmei̯ |
(kṣmé) |
zəmē |
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dŸhmei̯ |
jmé |
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dŸhm̥mei̯ |
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(χαμαί) |
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dhˈeǵhōm |
dhéǵhōm |
‘earth’ (nom.sg.f.) |
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dēgan |
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> dhǵhˈōm |
dŸǵhṓm |
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(zå̄) |
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ǵdŸhṓm |
(kṣāḥ) |
χϑών |
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illyr. Δαμ- |
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dh’eǵhom-m |
dhéǵhomm̥ |
‘earth’ (acc.sg.f.) |
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dhéǵhōm |
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> dhǵhˈom-m |
dŸǵhomm̥ |
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tkaṃ |
keṃ |
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ǵdŸhomm̥ |
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χϑόνα |
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dŸǵhōm |
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z¹m |
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ǵdŸhōm |
kṣā́m |
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ˈn-dhgwhi-tom |
ń̥dŸgwhitóm |
‘imperishable’ (neg. PPP, nom.sg.n.) |
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ń̥gwdŸhitóm |
ákṣitam |
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ἄϕϑιτον |
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dhgwhˈi-tis |
dŸgwhítis |
‘peril’ (nom.sg.f.) |
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gwdŸhítis |
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gwdŸhítiš |
kṣitíḥ |
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ϕϑίσις |
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dhgwhineHti |
dŸgwhinEHti |
‘destroys’ (3.sg.prs.) |
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jināiti |
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gwdŸhinEHti |
kṣiṇāti |
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(ϕϑίνει) |
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4.1.8. "Ruki" rule (facultative rule in PIE?):
4.1.8.1. a) after i,u:
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Notation with cover symbols:
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s → š / I _ |
Examples:
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PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
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|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
Alb. |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
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duís |
du̯ís |
‘twice’ |
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δίς |
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duis > bis |
düsh |
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twis |
zwir- |
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duu̯ís |
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du̯íš |
dvíḥ |
ϑβiš |
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duu̯íš |
duvíḥ |
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trís |
trís |
‘thrice’ |
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τρίς |
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ter |
trish |
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tríš |
tríḥ |
ϑriš |
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h1ish1/2rˈos |
՚isəe/a(՚/h)rós |
‘vivid; holy’ |
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ἱε/αρός |
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(IARI) |
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(isara) |
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՚išəe/a(՚/h)rós |
iṣiráḥ |
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toisu |
toi̯su |
‘in these’ (loc.pl.) |
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τοῖσι |
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toi̯šu |
téṣu |
*taēšu |
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tìxŭ |
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h2usih1 |
husi՚ |
‘ears’ (nom.du.n.) |
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huši՚ |
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ušī |
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uši |
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h2ˈeusos |
háusos |
‘ear’ (nom.sg.n.) |
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(auris) |
vesh |
áu |
(ausō) |
(ōra) |
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(ausìs) |
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háušos |
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uxo |
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h2ˈeusōs |
háusōs |
‘dawn’ (nom.sg.f.) |
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ἠώς |
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(aurōrā) |
n’esrë |
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háušōs |
(uṣ.ā́ḥ) |
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> h2usˈōs |
husṓs |
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hušṓs |
(uṣā́ḥ) |
(ušå̄) |
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h2ˈeusom |
háusom |
‘gold’ (nom.sg.n.) |
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aurum |
ar |
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ausas > áuksas |
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(wäs) |
(yasa) |
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háušom |
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h1ˈeus-eti |
՚éu̯seti |
‘burns’ (3.sg.prs.) |
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εὕει |
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ūrit |
ethe |
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՚éu̯šeti |
oṣati |
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h1ustˈos |
՚ustós |
‘burned’ (PPP, nom.sg.m.) |
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ustus |
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՚uštós |
uṣṭáḥ |
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dus-h1ˈeusom |
dus՚éusom |
‘hard to burn’ (acc.sg.m.) |
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duš՚éušom |
duróṣam |
dūraošəm |
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dus-menˈeses |
dusmenéses |
‘badly minded’ (nom.pl.m.) |
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δυσμενέα |
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dušmenéses |
durmanasaḥ |
dušmanaŋhō |
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(s)nusˈos |
(s)nusós |
‘daughter-in-law’ (nom.sg.f.) |
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νυός |
now |
nurus |
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(s)nušós |
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(s)nusˈeh2 |
(s)nusáh |
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(s)nušáh |
snuṣā́ |
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nuse |
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snor |
snur |
snŭxá |
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4.1.8.2. b) after velars:
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
s → š / Ξ _ |
Examples:
|
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
Alb. |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
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ksurˈos |
ksurós |
‘knife’ (nom.sg.m.) |
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ξυρός |
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kšurós |
kṣuráḥ |
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uksˈōn |
uksṓn |
‘ox’ (nom.sg.m.) |
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ych |
*aúhsa |
ohso |
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okso |
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ukšṓn |
ukṣā́ |
uxšā |
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uksˈenm |
uksénm̥ |
‘ox’ (acc.sg.m.) |
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ukšénm̥ |
ukṣánam |
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uksˈonm |
uksónm̥ |
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ukšónm̥ |
ukṣā́nam |
uxšānəm |
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-rˈēǵs |
-rḗḱs |
‘ruler’ (in comp., nom.sg.m.) |
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rēx |
mbret |
rī |
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-rḗḱš |
-rā́ṭ |
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-uēǵh-s-t |
-u̯ēḱst |
‘carried’ (3.sg.aor.) |
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(vēxit) |
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(vìs-) |
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-u̯ēḱšt |
(á)-vāṭ |
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uˈeǵh-s-e-t(i) |
u̯éḱset(i) |
‘will carry’ (3.sg.aor.subj.) |
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u̯éḱšet(i) |
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u̯éǵžhet(i) |
vákṣat(i) |
(uz-)uuažat |
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h2uogs-eie-ti |
hu̯oksei̯eti |
‘grows’ (3.sg.prs.caus.) |
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wahseiþ |
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hu̯okšei̯eti |
vakṣaya(m) |
vaxšaiiat(ō) |
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uˈōkw-s |
u̯ṓkws |
‘voice’ (nom.sg.f.) |
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vōx |
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u̯ṓkwš |
vā́k |
vāxš |
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Unification of rules a) and b):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
s → š / I | Ξ _ |
4.1.8.3. b) after r:
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
s → š / r _ |
Examples:
|
PIE |
Attested I.E. languages |
|||||||||||||||
|
phonolog. input |
phonetic output |
meaning / grammar |
Ved. |
Avest. |
Greek |
Arm. |
Latin |
Alb. |
OIr. / Cymr. |
Goth. / OSax. |
OHG |
OCS |
Lith. |
Hitt. |
Toch.A |
Toch.B |
|
h2rsēn |
hr̥sēn |
‘male (bull)’ (nom.sg.m.) |
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ἄρσ/ρην |
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(orre-) |
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hr̥šēn |
(ṛṣa-) |
arša |
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tˈrsus |
tŕ̥sus |
‘dry’ (nom.sg.m.) |
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þaúrsus |
(durri) |
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tŕ̥šus |
tṛṣúḥ |
taršu- |
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trstˈos |
tr̥stós |
‘thirsty’ (nom.sg.m.) |
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tart |
(þaurstei) |
(durst) |
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tr̥štós |
tṛṣṭáḥ |
tarštō |
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Hˈorsos |
Hórsos |
‘ass, buttock’ (nom.sg.m.) |
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ὄρρος |
or̄ |
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ars |
ars |
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arra- |
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Hóršos |
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prsth2ˈom |
pr̥sth(h)óm |
‘peak, ridge’ (acc.sg.m.n.) |
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prĭstŭ |
pir̃st¹ |
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pr̥šth(h)óm |
pṛṣṭhám |
parštəm |
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meh2tˈr-s |
mahtŕ̥s |
‘mother’ (gen.sg.f.) |
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mahtŕ̥š |
mātúr |
*mātərəš |
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meh2tr-ˈes |
mahtrés |
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mātris |
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matere |
móteres |
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(mātri) |
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meh2tr-ˈos |
mahtrós |
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μητρός |
mawr |
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motër |
máthar |
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muoter |
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4.2. Rules of syllabification
4.2.1. Hierarchy:
|
Rank |
Sound category |
Conditions of syllabicity |
|
I. |
Non-high vowels |
Always (wherever they appear) |
|
II. |
High vowels, nasals, liquids |
When not adjacent to sound of category I and when not followed by syllabic sound of category II ("Schindler's rule"); |
|
|
|
when, as second element of syllable, followed by sound of category I in word-final syllable ("Sievers'" and "Lindeman's" laws) |
|
III. |
Laryngeals |
When not adjacent to sound of category I or syllabic sound of category II |
|
IV. |
"Shewa secundum" |
Within remaining clusters of non-syllabic consonants (facultatively) |
4.2.2. Schematic rule representation:
4.2.2.1. Non-high vowels ("syllabic" not regarded as an underlying
feature)
|
|
4.2.2.2. Other sonorants ("sonorant" not regarded as an underlying
feature): Schindler's rule ( Die Sprache 23 [1977], p.
56):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
|
R → R̥ / (# | C) _ (C | #) |
(rule operating iteratively from right to left, with high vowels, nasals and
liquids regarded as being underlyingly non-syllabic)
4.2.2.2.1. Subrule I: Sievers'
law (after Schindler, o.c., p. 57):
|
|
Alternative notation with cover symbols:
|
R → R̥ / WCn1 _ VCn0# | VRCn1 _ VCn0# |
Same with notation of presumptive syllable boundaries (.):
|
R → R̥ / W.Cn1 _ VCn0# | VR.Cn1 _ VCn0# |
N.B. Tautosyllabic obstruent clusters are no valid condition:
|
R → R / VPP. _ VCn0# |
4.2.2.2.2. Lindeman's law:
|
|
Notation by cover symbols:
|
R → R̥ / #Cn1 _ VCn0# |
Example:
|
Paradigm *{ḱuon-} "dog" |
||||||
|
Case form |
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
Old Indic |
Greek |
|
|
attested |
expected |
|||||
|
Nom.Sg. |
/ḱuō(n)/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯ō(n)] / [ḱuu̯ō(n)] |
œuvā |
κύων / †πῶν |
|
|
Acc.Sg. |
/ḱuón-m/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯ónm̥] |
œvā́nam |
<κύνα> |
†πόνα |
|
Gen.Sg. |
/ḱun-és/ |
→ |
[ḱunés] |
œunás |
(κυνός) |
†κυνές |
|
Nom.Pl. |
/ḱuón-es/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯ónes] |
œvā́nas |
<κύνες> |
†πόνες |
|
Acc.Pl. |
/ḱun-ns/ |
→ |
[ḱunn̥s] |
œunás |
κύνας |
|
|
Instr.Pl. |
/ḱun-bʰís/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯n̥bʰís] |
œvabhís |
|
|
|
Loc.Pl. |
/ḱun-sú/ |
→ |
[ḱu̯n̥sú] |
*œvasú |
<(κῡσί)> |
†πασύ |
4.2.2.3. Laryngeals (N.B.: syllabicity of obstruents phonetically implausible)
/hx/ → [h̥x]
|
|
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
|
H → H̥ / (C | #) H _ (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1. Alternative solutions:
4.2.2.3.1.1. Shewa anaptyxis before laryngeals:
/hx/ → [əxhx]
|
|
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
|
Ø → ə / (C | #) _ H (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1.2. Shewa anaptyxis after laryngeals:
/hx/ → [hxəx]
|
|
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
|
Ø → ə / (C | #) H _ (C | #) |
4.2.2.3.1.3. Shewa substitution (N.B.: "double" effects not
accountable for):
/hx/ → [əx]
|
|
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
|
H → ∀ / (C | #) _ (C | #) |
4.2.3. Other rules concerning laryngeals:
4.2.3.1. "Colouring":
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
e → a / ( _ h2 ) | ( h2 _ ) |
|
e → o / ( _ h3 ) | ( h3 _ ) |
4.2.3.2. Loss of laryngeal in pausa position ("Kuiper's law", facultative; after colouring!):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
H → Ø / _ ## |
4.2.3.3. "Compensatory lengthening":
4.2.3.3.1. a) coinciding with colouring:
|
|
|
e → ē / _ h1C |
|
e → ā / _ h2C |
|
e → o / _ h3C |
4.2.3.3.2. b) same, with laryngeals "absorbed":
|
|
|
eh1 → ē / _ C |
|
eh2 → ā / _ C |
|
eh3 → o / _ C |
N.B. This cannot be the general rule of PIE because *h2 has been preserved as ḫ in this
position in Anatolian; cp., e.g. Hitt. paḫš- < *peh2-sḱ- vs. Lat. pāscō etc.
4.2.3.3.3. c) rule to be applied after colouring, including lengthening of i,u,r̥,l̥,m̥,n̥:
|
|
|
V → V̄ / _ HC |
N.B. In the case of nasals and liquids, this rule can hardly represent the
actual phonetic development if we consider the Greek development of -ενε- vs -νη- etc. (governed by accent? ablaut
levelling?); rather a rule of shewa anaptyxis? Cp.
|
PIE |
Greek |
|
Latin |
Slavic |
Indo-Iranian |
Toch.B |
|||
|
phonological input |
phonetic output |
Proto-Greek |
Classic |
Alb. |
OInd. |
Avest. |
|
||
|
/ǵˈn̥h1-ti-s/ |
[ǵə́en՚əetis] |
*génetis |
γένεσις |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
← {ǵˈenh1-ti-s}? |
[ǵnəe՚tis] |
|
|
|
nāti-ō |
|
|
|
|
|
/ǵn̥h1-tˈo-s/ |
[ǵnəe՚tós] |
*gnātós |
(κασί-)γνητος |
|
nātus |
|
|
|
|
|
[ǵəen՚tós] |
|
|
dhândër |
|
|
jātáḥ |
jātō |
|
|
|
/ḱˈr̥h2sˈn-h2/ |
[ḱəar̥̄hsn̥̄́h] |
|
|
|
|
|
œīrṣā́ |
|
|
|
← {ḱˈerh2sn-h2}? |
[ḱə́arhəasnəah] |
*kárahna |
κάρηνα |
krëja |
|
|
|
|
|
|
/ḱr̥h2sn̥-ˈes/ |
[ḱəarhsnés] |
|
|
|
|
|
œīrṣṇás |
|
|
|
/ḱˈr̥h2sn̥-tos/ |
[ḱrə́ahsn̥tos] |
*krā́hatos |
κρᾱ́ατος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
/ḱˈr̥h2os/ |
[ḱə́arhos] |
|
|
|
|
|
œíraḥ |
sarə̄ |
|
|
/-str̥h3-toi/ |
[-stəorՙə3toi] |
*-storotoi̯ |
ἐ-στόροται |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
/str̥h3-tˈo-s/ |
[strəoՙtós] |
*strōtós |
στρωτός |
shtrinj, shtrofkë |
strātus |
|
|
|
|
|
[stəorՙtós] |
|
|
|
|
|
(stīrṇáḥ) |
starətas- |
|
|
|
/pˈrh3uos/ |
[pə3rՙu̯os] |
|
|
|
|
pĭ́rvŭ-jŭ |
pū́rvaḥ |
pouruuō |
pärwe-ṣṣe |
|
/pˈrh3tos/ |
[prə́3ՙtos] |
*prṓtos |
πρῶτος |
|
|
|
|
|
|
4.2.3.3.4. d) same in word final position: three (facultative) effects:
4.2.3.3.4.1. lengthening:
|
|
|
V → V̄ / _ HC |
4.2.3.3.4.2. loss of laryngeal ("Kuiper's
law"):
|
|
Notation with cover symbols:
|
H → Ø / V _ # |
4.2.3.3.4.3. after i,u: shewa anaptyxis before laryngeal:
|
|
Notation with cover symbols ("colouring" not accountable for):
|
Ø → ə / R _ H # |
Examples:
|
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
|
*/pˈih1uerih2/ |
→ |
[pī́u̯erī] |
> |
OInd. pī́varī |
|
→ |
[pī́u̯eri] |
> |
OInd. voc. *pī́vari |
|
|
→ |
[pī́u̯eri̯əah] |
> |
Greek πίειρα |
|
|
/pˈotnih2/ |
→ |
[pótnī] |
> |
OInd. pátnī |
|
→ |
[pótni] |
> |
OInd. voc. pátni |
|
|
→ |
[pótnii̯əah] |
> |
Greek πότνια |
|
|
/plth2uˈih2/ |
→ |
[pl̥thhəau̯ī́] |
> |
OInd. pr̥th(i)vī́ |
|
→ |
[pĺ̥thhəau̯i] |
> |
OInd. voc. pḁ̀th(i)vi |
|
|
→ |
[pl̥təahu̯i̯əah] |
> |
Greek *πλαταῖα |
|
|
/h3kwih1 |
→ |
[ՙəokwī] |
> |
(Arm. aèՙ-kՙ, Slav. oèī, Lith. akì) |
|
→ |
[ՙəokwi] |
|
|
|
|
|
[ՙəokwi̯əe՚] |
> |
Greek ὄσσε |
4.2.3.4. Occlusives ("shewa secundum"). Cf. Peters, Laryngale, 98. N.B.: This "shewa" to
be regarded as unrounded high vowel
Notation with cover symbols:
|
Ø → i̵ / #Z_ZC |
N.B. This rule is facultative; it alternates with cluster reduction:
Notation with cover symbols:
|
Z → Ø / #_ZC |
N.B. This rule must be applied before Lindeman's
law.
4.3. Further rules concerning syllabification:
4.3.1. Stang's (second) law:
Notation with cover symbols:
|
EI → Ē / _ N |
Examples:
|
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
|
*/dieum/ |
→ |
[d(i)i̯ēm] |
> |
OInd. diyām, Greek ζῆν, Lat. *diēm > diem |
|
*/gʷoum/ |
→ |
[gʷōm] |
> |
OInd. gām, Greek βῶν |
4.3.2. Stang's law applied to laryngeals:
This rule is obviously facultative, alternating with syllabification of the
nasal involved:
Examples:
|
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
|
*/teh2m/ |
→ |
[tām] |
> |
OInd. tām, Greek τήν, OCS tǫ |
|
*/teh2ns/ |
→ |
[tāns] |
> |
Greek τᾱ́ς < τανς << τᾱνς; |
|
|
→ |
[tahn̥s] |
> |
PIIr. *tahas > OInd. tās; |
|
*/h2uˈeh1ntos/ |
→ |
[hu̯ḗntos] |
→ |
Toch. want / yente; Goth. winds, Lat. uentus |
|
|
→ |
[hu̯é՚n̥tos] |
→ |
OInd. Avest. <vā́tas> [u̯aatas] |
4.3.3. Rix' law (concerning Greek):
4.3.3.1. Alternative interpretation 1: Shewa substitution:
4.3.3.2. Alternative interpretation 2: Left shewa anaptyxis:
N.B. Must be applied before Osthoff's law?
4.3.3.3. Alternative interpretation 3: Right
shewa anaptyxis:
Examples:
|
phonological input |
|
phonetic output |
|
Attested I.E. languages |
|
*h1rsḱˈe- |
→ |
[՚r̥sḱé-] |
> |
OInd. r̥cchá-ti |
|
|
→ |
[՚əersḱé-] |
> |
Greek ἔρχε-ται |
|
*h2mbhˈi) |
→ |
[hm̥bhí] |
> |
OInd. abhí, OHG umbe |
|
|
→ |
[həambhí] |
> |
Greek ἄμϕί |
|
*h3nbhl- |
→ |
[ՙn̥bhl-] |
> |
Lat. umbilīcus, OIr. imbliu |
|
|
→ |
[ՙəonbhl̥l-] |
> |
Greek ὄμϕαλός |
|
*h3nobh- |
→ |
[ՙəonobh] |
> |
OHG nabulo, OInd. nābha- |
|
*h3nebh- |
→ |
[ՙəonebh] |
> |
Arm. aniw |
5. Rules concerning individual branches or languages
5.1. General tendencies in the development of the system of stops:
|
Proto-IE. |
T |
M |
MA |
Rules to be observed |
|
Old-Indic |
T |
M |
MA |
, |
|
Old-Iranian |
T |
M |
, |
|
|
Greek |
T |
M |
TA |
|
|
Italic |
T |
M |
TA > F |
|
|
Celtic |
T |
M |
|
|
|
Germanic |
F |
T |
M > F |
|
|
Balto-Slavic |
T |
M |
|
|
|
Armenian |
TA |
TG |
M |
|
|
Tocharian |
T |
|
||
|
Anatolian |
T? |
M? |
|
|
5.1.1. Glottalistic reinterpretation:
|
Proto-IE. |
TA |
TG |
MA |
Rules to be observed |
|
Old-Indic |
T |
M |
MA |
, |
|
Old-Iranian |
T |
M |
, |
|
|
Greek |
T |
M |
TA |
|
|
Italic |
T |
M |
TA > F |
|
|
Celtic |
T |
M |
|
|
|
Germanic |
F |
T |
M > F |
|
|
Balto-Slavic |
T |
M |
|
|
|
Armenian |
TA |
TG |
M |
|
|
Tocharian |
T |
|
||
|
Anatolian |
T? |
M? |
|
|
N.B.: T = Tenuis, M = Media, MA = Media Aspirata, TA = Tenuis Aspirata,
F = Fricative, TG = Tenuis Glottalis
5.1.2. Special rules for original mediae aspiratae in
Latin:
5.1.2.1. Proto-Italic development:
5.1.2.1.1. Desonorization (as in Greek):
|
↓ |
*bʰ |
*dʰ |
*ǵʰ/*gʰ |
*gʷʰ |
|
|
*pʰ |
*tʰ |
*kʰ |
*kʷʰ |
5.1.2.1.2. Fricativization (as in later Greek):
|
↓ |
*pʰ |
*tʰ |
*kʰ |
*kʷʰ |
|
|
*f |
*ϑ |
*χ |
*χʷ |
5.1.2.2. Proto-Latin developments:
5.1.2.2.1. Sonorization in intervocalic position:
|
↓ |
*f |
*ϑ |
*χ |
*χʷ |
|
|
*ƀ |
*ð |
*ǥ |
*ǥʷ |
5.1.2.2.2. Further development of dental fricatives:
5.2. Grimm's / Verner's
law
5.2.1. Rule A:
5.2.2. Rule B:
5.2.3. Rule C:
5.2.4. Rules B and C unified:
5.3. Grassmann's law (dissimilation of aspirated sounds,
valid for Indo-Iranian and Greek)
N.B. This rule must be applied after the desonorization of mediae in Greek:
5.4. Brugmann's rule (valid for Indo-Iranian)
5.5. Spirantization of stops in Iranian:
5.6. The Indo-Iranian development of palatals ("palatal law"):
N.B. Must be applied before the merger of mid vowels:
Examples:
|
PIE |
PIIr. |
OInd. |
Avest. |
|||
|
phonological input |
phonetic output |
Early |
Late |
|
phonologically |
graphically |
|
–kʷe |
[–kʷe] |
*–èe |
*–èa |
–ca |
/-ca/ |
<-ca> |
|
gʷˈenh2 |
[gʷénəah] |
*ǰénə |
*ǰánə |
jáni- |
/jani-/ |
|
|
gʷʰˈen-ti |
[gʷʰénti] |
*ǰʰénti |
*ǰʰánti |
hánti |
/janti/ |
|
|
kiˈeue–toi |
[ki̯éu̯etoi̯] |
*èi̯éu̯etoi̯ |
*èi̯áu̯atai̯ |
cyávate |
/ši̯au̯a-/ |
<š́(ii)auua–> |
|
iungˈenti |
[i̯ungénti] |
*i̯unǰénti |
*i̯unǰénti |
yuñjánti |
*/i̯unjanti/ |
* |
|
gʰˈedeti |
[gʰédeti] |
*ǰʰédeti |
*ǰʰádati |
*hadati |
|
|
5.8. The Slavic palatalizations
5.8.1. First palatalization
N.B. The rule must be applied before the monophthongization of
*oi̯, *ai̯ > ì (cf. below), but after the effects of the ruki-rule
(cf. ) leading from *s > x:
5.8.2. Second palatalization
5.8.2.1. East- and South-Slavic:
5.8.2.2. West-Slavic:
N.B.: The conditioning vowel must be the result of a or o plus i
(diphthong, later merging with ì or ī).
5.8.3. Third palatalization:
5.8.3.1. East- and South-Slavic:
5.8.3.2. West-Slavic: