ENGLISH GRAMMAR  for Spanish Speakers

2. Nouns 3. The Articles 4. Quantifying Adjectives 5. Determiners 6. Pronouns 7. Quantifiers and Indefinite pronouns

8. Auxiliary verbs 9. The verb: mood and tense 10. The passive voice 11. Anomalous or special verbs (Modal Auxiliaries) 12. The subjunctive 13. Nonfinites 14. Multi-word verbs (Verbs+particle)

15. Adverbs and adverbials 16. Prepositions 17. Conjunctions 18. The simple sentence 19. The complex sentence 20. Indirect Speech 21. Word-formation

2. NOUNS

1. Classes of nouns

1. Countable and Uncountable
             1. Countable: nouns which have both singular and plural forms (count)
             2. Uncountable: nouns which do not usually occur in the plural (mass)
      This division is grammatically important because:
             1. Uncountable nouns cannot be used with indefinite article a/an
                   a) of a general kind: information, wood, cake...
                   b) of a specific kind: bread, meat, sugar ...
                   c) expressions of measurement: butter, sugar, coal...
             2. Uncountable nouns do not have a plural form (they need a partitive)
                   * Sometimes a noun can be countable or uncountable according to the function it fulfils (cake, beauty..)
                   * Some nouns vary according to whether they are used as countable or uncountable (iron, glass, wood, ice...
     2. Other groups of nouns

3. Collective nouns: It is one which refers to a collection of people, animals or things as a group
     4. Abstract nouns and concrete nouns
                               1. Abstract:  A noun which refers to a quality state or action
                               2. Concrete: A noun which refers to a physical thing
     5. Summing up

                         Note: Names of certain animals and the meat that they produce

                                                               * Countable Concrete: ox, pig, sheep, deer, calf
                                                               * Uncountable concrete: beef, pork, mutton, venison, veal
     6. The formation of abstract nouns
                               1. From adjectives: wise > wisdom; poor > poverty; high < height...
                               2. From common nouns: man > mankind; king > kingship...
                               3. From verbs:  live > life; see > sight

2. Number

1. General ruler
                                 Adding s to the singular [bird > birds]

2. Special cases
             1. Nouns ending in sibilant: (s, ss, sh, ch, x, z, zz): + es [kiss > kisses; brush > brushes]
             2. Nouns ending in consonant + o:   +es [tomato > tomatoes; potato > potatoes]
                           Exceptions: * Some words of foreign origin +s  only [piano > pianos; photo > photos]
                                             * In some cases, both are acceptable + s / + es [volcano(e)s, buffalo(e)s]
                                             * Vowel + o follow the general rule [folio > folios; studio > studios...]
             3. Nouns ending in * consonant + y: > consonant + ies:  [body > bodies; fly > flies...]
                                          *  vowel + y: vowel + ys [day > days; toy > toys...]
                                          * proper nouns > keep the y [Kennedy > Kennedys]
             4. Nouns ending in f/fe > ves [wife > wives]
                          Exceptions     * some follow the main rule [chief, roof, proof, cliff, safe, handkerchief]
                                               * some use both plural [scarf, hoof, dwarf]

3. Irregular plurals
              1. Old English plurals * Mutation plural [man > men; foot > feet]
                                                 * -en plural: [child > children; ox > oxen; brother > brethren]

                       2. Foreign plurals
                              * Certain nouns from Greek and Latin, have special plurals
                                                                     - is > es  /i:z/ [axis > axes]
                                                                     - a > ae  /i:/ [larva > larvae]
                                                                     - us > i  /ai/ [bacilus > bacilli]
                                                                     - on > a       [criterion > criteria]
                              * Some nouns have a regular English plural as well as a Latin or Greek one:
                                                                     [appendix > appendixes / appendices]
                               * Sometimes the two plurals have different meanings
                               * Other which have been completely assimilated have a plural only in s or es [bonus > bonuses]

                        3. Zero plural 

     * Some words, particularly the names of certain animals, have the same form in the singular as in the plural (zero plural) [sheep, salmon, deer, cod, duck, grouse, quail]
      * Some of them have two forms in the plural: the zero plural, when they are being referred to as game and the regular plural when being referred to as examples of their species.
      * This group could also include some nouns which indicate quantities or measures. They are invariable when followed by a noun; otherwise they add s in the plural. [two dozen eggs / dozens of eggs]

4. Other special cases

                 1. Words which are used only in the plural and take a plural verb [pluralia tantum]
     1. Words which are used only in the plural and take a plural verb [pluralia tantum]
     1. Words which are used only in the plural and take a plural verb [pluralia tantum]
                          * items of clothing and instruments of tools which consists of two parts joined together [trousers, pants ..]
                          * various [annals, clothes]
                       2. Words which end in S, but which usually take a singular verb
                          * certain illnesses [measles, mumps]
                          * certain games [billiards, dominoes]
                          * certain academic disciplines [Mathematics, linguistics]
                          * news
                       3. Words which only have a form ending in S that can be singular or plural [barracks, means, series]
                       4. Words which are singular in form but are always used in the plural [people, police, cattle]
                       5. Words with a different meaning in the singular and in the plural 
                                               * air = aire [atmósfera]                                      * look = mirada
                                               * airs = aires [darse aires]                                 * looks = aspecto
                       6. Words with two meanings in the plural as opposed to one in the singular
                                               * colour = color
                                               * colours = colores / bandera de club
                       7. Words with two meanings in the singular as opposed to one in the plural
                                               * people = pueblo, nación / personas
                                               * peoples = naciones, pueblos

5. Rules of concord
          1. General rule:  a singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject, a plural verb
          2. Special cases
             * With a collective noun, the verb can be in the singular or the plural according to whether the group is considered as a whole or as individuals. [My family is a happy one]
             * People, police, public, clergy, catle,  always take a plural verb [The police have arrived]
             * Two or more subject joined by the construction and  take a plural verb [The boy and his dog are playing]
             * Two singular subjects joined by the correlative either ... or, neither ... nor, take a singular verb.
             * The distributives everybody, each ...  take a singular verb 

6. Pronunciation of the plural S
                                1. Nouns ending in voiceless , less sibilants (p,t,k,f,0) à /s/
                               2. Nouns ending in voiced, less sibilants (b,d,g,v,d,m,n,ñ,r,l) à /z/
                               3. Nouns ending in sibilant à /iz/
                               4. Some words ending in 0 à /dz/
                               5. Some words ending in 0s à both plurals
                               6. With house there is a voicing /hauziz/

3. Gender

                * The gender of nouns in English depends on the sex of the person or thing referred to. Things are neuter.
                    * Animals are neuter, except when their sex needs to be specified as characters in a story or for scientific reasons.
                    * The female sex may be marked in one of the two following ways:
                         1. By a change of word [boy - girl]
                         2. By change of ending [actor - actress]
                         3. The vast majority of nouns, however, have one word for both sexes and are of common gender [doctor- singer]
                         4. If for reasons of clarity it is necessary to specify the sex, it is done by adding an appropriate word.

4. Genitive Case

                * Introduction
                                * To indicate possession > Personal possession ['s]
                                                                           > No personal possession [of -construction]
                * Formation

                * Pronunciation

                * The use of the possessive with 's
                                1. Mainly to indicate that something belongs to a person or persons or animate beings [John's car]
                               2. With the pronouns someone, somebody [Somebody's cup]
                               3. With the names of institutions, countries, states, cities or human activities [The city's museums]
                               4. In certain idiomatic expressions of time, space, distance, measurement, weight, etc [a week's holiday]
                               5. In a few idioms and in poetry [for heaven's sake]                

* Omission of the thing possessed
                1. Translating the expression casa de [at my uncle's =en casa de mi tío]
               2. When referring to shops or similar establishments (hotels, restaurants, offices, surgeries, ... [the baker's]
               3. When referring to churches, cathedrals or well-known hospitals [St Paul's]
               4. To avoid repetition [This is my car and that is my brother's]

                * The use of 's and of (double genitive)
                                * It is generally used partitively [a friend of my father's]

* Values of the genitive

                               1. Possessive genitive: its main value [Peter's wallet]
                               2. Subjective genitive: the genitive is the subject [The girl's shouts  ~ The girl shouted]
                               3. Objective genitive: the genitive is the object [The prisoner's release ~ They released the prisoner]
                               4. Genitive of origin [Your father's telegram ~ The telegram from your father]
                               5. Descriptive genitive [A boy's school ~ A school for boys]
                               6. Genitive of measure (time, value, etc. [ten days' absence]
                               7. Genitive of attitude [The man's courage = The man has courage]
                               8. Partitive genitive [The moon's surface]

5. Compound Nouns

                * Formation
                   To be a real compound it should be heard as a single word with only one stress, nearly always on the first syllable. Compound nouns can be formed                       with the following elements:
                               1. Adjectives + noun or vice-versa.......[bluebell]
                               2. Noun + noun....................................[shopkeeper]
                               3. Form in -ing + noun, with a hyphen [dining-room]
                               4. Pronoun + noun...............................[he-goat]
                               5. Verb + noun.....................................[breakfast]
                               6. Particle + noun or vice-versa...........[overcoat]
                               7. Verb + particle or vice-versa ...........[breakdown]
                               8. Noun + form in -ing ........................ [horse-riding]
                               9. Whole phrases..................................[forget-me-not]

                * Plural of compound nouns

                               1. When the compound noun is considered as one word + s ..............[armchair > armchairs]
                               2. Where the first element is a noun + particle, only the noun take s .[son-in-law > sons-in-law]
                               3. Where two nouns: both elements take s ...........................................[man-servant > men-servants]

6. The grammatical function of nouns

                The same function in sentences as noun in Spanish

7. Nouns and Adjectives of Nationality

a/ The noun formed from the adjective
                1. Finished in an > + s ................................> American > Americans
                2. Finished in ese > the same ....................> Japanese > Japanese
                3. Finished in sh / ch > +man / woman .....> English > Englishman
                4. Other endings Greek > Greeks
b/ The adjective and the noun have different forms ....> British / Britons; Spanish / Spaniards 

8. The use of capitals

            1. After full stop
                2. Proper names
                3. Forms of address and titles
                4. The titles of books, films, etc. (only the main words)
                Main differences with Spanish
                               a. Nouns of nationalities and languages
                               b. The days of the week, months and holidays
                               c. Nouns which refer to specific member of the family and used as a mark of respect
                               d. The personal pronoun I