| ENGLISH GRAMMAR for Spanish Speakers |
1. Concept and division
* Two or more clauses joined
syntactically
* Types
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Juxtaposition |
Coordination |
Subordination |
2. Juxtaposed Clauses
* These are clauses which are linked by
the logical meaning of sentence, but are not joined by a conjunction.
* Juxtaposed Clauses function as
coordinate or subordinate, depending on the relationship being expressed.
* We can also include Distributive
Clauses
* Such clauses are joinded by a
conjunction although each maintains its independence since neither becomes an integral part or the other.
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4. Copultive Coordinate Clauses |
5. Disjunctive Coordinate Clauses |
6. Contrastive Coordinate Clauses |
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Add another concept to the previous one Copultive coordinator: - and - both ... and - neither ... nor - not (only) ... but - furthermore - besides - moreover - likewise |
Offering one or more alternatiaves Disjunctive coordinator: - or - either ... or - or else - otherwise |
Contrastive coordinator - (and) yet - still - however - though - nevertheless - all the same - nonetheless - on the other hand |
* It is linked by the corresponding
subordinator to the main clause of which it forms an integral part
* Types
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Nominal |
Adjectival |
Adverbial |
* They really replace a noun
* Functions
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Subject |
What you tell me is very nice |
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Direct Object |
I don't understand what you are saying |
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Predicate |
The idea is that you pick him up |
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Prepositional Complement |
They all laughed at what he said |
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Apposition |
The idea that you pick him up is a good one |
*
Forms
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9. Nominal That-Clauses * The subordinator is frequently omitted except in formal use * That cannot be omitted when the clause is the subject * The subordinate clause can have the verb in the subjunctive * Sometimes it takes should |
I know (that) is true (The fact) that they aren't here yet baffles me I suggest (taht) he go to the doctor's I suggest (that) he should go to the doctor's |
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10. Subordinate Indirect Interrogative Clause * They are introduced: é
Wh-interrogative clauses é
Yes-No interrogative clause (whether / if) Whether is compulsory ç
when it is followed directly by or not ç
when it is in the subject position ç
before an infinitive |
He didn't know who he wa He didn't know whether / if she was in Italy I don't care whether or not she plays the guitar Whether you do it or not is none of my business He hadn't decided yet whether to stay or (to) leave |
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11. Nominal Relative Clauses * They are introduced by a particle from
Wh-group: who, what, whoever, whatever, which, where |
Whoever did that is a brute. |
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12. Nominal To-Infinitive Clauses * It is very common. |
To know her is to love her |
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13. Nominal –Ing Participial Clauses |
No one can enjoy playing that stupid game |
* A subordinate adjective clause
performs the role of an adjective by qualifying its antecedent, a noun in the main clause.
* They are introduced by relative
pronouns.
* When the adverbs when,
where, why... functions as relatives, they are also used to introduce adjective clauses.
15. Division of Relative Clauses
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Defining Clauses |
Non-Defining Clauses |
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For people |
For things |
For people |
For things |
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Nominative case |
who, that |
which, that |
who |
which |
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Accusative case |
whom, that, who |
which, that |
whom, who |
which |
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Genitive case |
whose |
of which, whose |
whose |
of which, whose |
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16. Defining / Restrictive Relative Clauses |
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A defining relative clause defines or restricts its antecedent in such a way that, if the clause were omitted, the
meaning of the sentence would be imomplete. The relative can be omitted 1. When it is not the subject of the relative clause ..................................... 2. When used in conjunction with a preposition placed in the final position
.......................................................................................................... 3. If the verb is to be accompanied by an adjunct of place, etc. In such cases, the verb to be is also omitted |
That's the man (whom) I saw yesterday Those are the things (which) he likes to play with The girl (who is) riding on the scooter is Susan |
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17. Non-Defining / Non-Restrictive Relative Clauses |
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Non-defining or non-restrictive relative clauses give additional information about
the antecedent, but parenthetically, so that even if that information were omitted, the meaning of the main clause would still be complete. They are separated from the antecedent by a comma................ It is perfectly possible to put the preposition last....................... The antecedent of a non-defining relative clause can be an entire clause
.................................................................................. |
Mr Brown, whom I first met in Italy, has send me a post car Rickie, who I've neve played with, is a great professional He sent her a bunch of flower, which was very nice of him |
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* They fulfil the function of adverbs or
adverbials
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19. Adverbial Clauses of Place * Introduced: where, wherever * Position: in the final and in the initial |
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20. Adverbial Clauses of Time * Introduced: after, as, before, once, till/untill, when, whenever, while/whilst, now that, as soon as, since * Position: in the final, in the initial and it is also possible in medial position * It is common to fin -ing participle or -ed
participle clause |
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21. Adverbial Clauses of Manner * Introduced: as, as if, as though * Position: in the final * As can be preceded by just /
exactly |
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22. Comparative Clauses * Introduced: as...as, not as/so...as, such...as, more...than, less...than * As can be omitted after a linking verb. * Correlative constructions: the more...the more, the sooner...the better |
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23. Adverbial Clauses of Purpose * The most common construction is
the one with the to-infinitive. * For + accusative is common particularly when there is a danger of
ambiguity * In order to or so as to are
used in rather more formal language and in negatiave. * Finite clauses of purpose are introduced generally by in order that, so
that + modal auxiliaries (can, could, will, could) |
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24. Adverbial Clauses of Reason * Introduced: as, because, since, for * Position ç
because are generally found in the final ç
as / since, in the initial ç
for (rarely) |
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25. Adverbial Clauses of Result * They are closely connected with clauses of reason which express the same ideas in reserve. * Introduced: so, so that, so...that |
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27. The most important types of Conditional Clauses
a) Type one: Open conditions
b) Type two: Hypothetical or theoretical
conditions
c) Type three: Past hypothetical
conditions
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28. Open Conditions |
* The condition may or may not be
fulfilled; the conditon expressed remain unresolved |
If you study, you'll pass your exams |
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29. Hypothetical or theorical conditions |
It is theoretically possible to fulfil the condition, but it is unlikely |
If you studied, you'd pass your exams |
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30. Past hypothetical conditions |
The condition can no longer be fulfilled because the action referred to has been carried out contrary to the condition expressed. |
If you had studied, you would have passed your exams |
31. Summary of the most common tenses used in Conditional Clauses
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Type of clause |
If-clause |
Main clause |
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Open |
Present |
Future, imperative, or modal auxiliary in the present |
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Hypothetical |
Past |
Conditional or modal auxiliary in the past |
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Past Hypothetical |
Past Perfect |
Past conditional or a modal auxiliary plus perfect infinitive |
32. Negative Conditional Clauses with ‘unless’
* Unless introduces a negataive conditional clause which express a condition which must be fulfilled or the action of the main clause cannot be carried out à
Unless we get some petro, we won't get there
33. Other types of Conditional Clauses
a) Conditional clauses with should.
b) Conditional clauses with was/were
to
c) Conditional clauses with will/would
d)
Conditional clauses of the 'cause-effect' type
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34. Conditional with should |
´The meaning is the equivalent of 'si acaso / por casualidad' |
If you should see her this afternoon, tell her I'd like to see her |
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35. Conditional with was/were to |
The equivalent of conditional clauses with should, having the same value of contingency or chance |
If you were to wake up before me, give the baby its milk. |
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36. Conditional with will/would |
When will or would is used in the subordinate conditional clause with if, it shows that the fulfilment of the condition depends upon the volition of the subject; the idea is to be prepared to do
something or want to do it. |
If you will/would come tomorrow, we can/could play cards |
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37. Conditional of 'cause-effect |
They establishe a relationship of cause and effect, rather than expressin a condition |
If you heat-ice, it melts |
38. Inversion with ‘should’, ‘were’ and ‘had’
* It is possible to omit the conjunction
and invert should, were or had and the subject à
Should you see her, give her this
39. Other subordinators used in Conditional Clauses
* If
* Unless
* Provided = con tal que à
Provided you behave, you'll be in trouble
* As long as = siempre que à
As long as nobody knows, you won't get into trouble
* Providing (that) = con tal que
* On condition that = a condición de
que
40. Other ways of expressing a condition
* By means
of an imperative or by using a particle à
Do that, and you'll be in trouble / Defeated, they would turn to China for help.
41. Other values of ‘if’
* Supposition à
If he said that, he is fool
* Questions in reported speech
à He wanted to know if (whether) she was there
* Wish (if only)
à If only he would stop teasing me
* When à
If she wants the maid, she rings the bell
* Concessive (even if)
à I'll do it even if it takes me the whole day
* Exclamation
à As if I would allow it!
42. Adverbial Clauses of Concession
* Concessive clauses express an
objection of difficulty involved in the fulfilment of the action of the main clause without, howerver, preventing that action from being carried out.
* A variant: contrastive clauses.
* The most important conjunctions
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althouth = aunque though = aunque even if = aunque |
even though = aunque much as = a pesar de lo que mucho que no matter how/how much/how many/ where... |
whereas = mientras que while = mientras que whilst = mientras que; aunque (esp. BrE) |
* Other subordinators:
- however = por mucho...
-
however much/many = por mucho(s)
- whatever = cualquiera que sea
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whether ... or not = ya ... no
- for all (that...) = (a pesar de ...)
- in spite of ... / despite ... = ( a pesar de...)