| ENGLISH GRAMMAR for Spanish Speakers |
1. Phrase, Clause and Sentence
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* Phrase: a word or group of words forming a
syntactic unit which is not a complete sentence, i.e. it does not have a subject or predicate. Types >
Noun phrase
> Adjectival phrase
> Prepositional phrase
> Verb phrase
> Infinitive phrase
> Participial phrase |
* Clause: a word or group of words containing a subject (implicit or explicit) and averb Types >
dependent
> independent |
* Sentence the largest unit of grammatical organization, containing a complete unit of thought Types > Simple > Complex |
2. Sentence types based on syntactic structure
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1. Subject + Verb + Predicate. ( S+V+P) |
V à
State / existence (current) à
Result (resulting |
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P à
a noun or a noun phrase à
an adverb or an advaerbial phrase à
a subordinate noun clause à
an adjective or participle |
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2. Subject + Intransitive Verb. (SintV) |
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3. Subject + Transitive Verb + Direct Object (SVOd) |
The Direct Object can be: à
a noun or noun phrase à
an infinitive with or without to à
the -ing form à
a subordinate noun clause |
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4. Subject + Verb + Direct Object + Direct Object Complement (SVOd C) |
The Direct Object complement can be: à
an adjective or participle à
a noun or noun phrase |
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5. Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (SVOi Od) |
Verbs constructed with two objects |
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6. Subject + Verb + Indirect Obj. + Direct Obj. + Direct Obj. Complement (SVOi Od C) |
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3. Main Parts of the Clause
* The Verb
* The Subject
4. Omission of the Subject
* The English verb must always be
accompanied by its subject.
* Its omission is permitted:
1. When the sense of the utterance is not jeopardized and in some set expressions
2. In coordinated or juxtaposed clauses with the same subject to avoid repetition
5. Sentence types according to the speaker's attitude
* Depending on the intention of the
speaker:
a) statements or declarative sentences (affirmative / negative)
b) questions
c) commands
d) exclamations
6. Affirmative form
* Subject + Verb
7. Inversion of the Subject
1. In sentences introduced by the adverb
here/there.
In sentences introduced by other adverbs or adverbial phrases of place.
2. In constructions with SO
and neither / not = también / tampoco.
3. In sentences introduced by certain
adverbs and adverbial expressions of a negative or restrictive kind: hardly, no sooner, in vain, on no account, by no means, never, little, nowhere, not only, not, neither, nor, only, rarelu, scarcely, seldom.
The verb do as dummy opperator is placed before the subject
4. Sometimes with to
say and similar verbs in direct speech in the reporting clause
5. In certain comparative sentences
introduced by SO, especially in literary style.
6. In conditional clauses with had,
should, were, inversion is possible when if is omitted.
7. In esclamations with may
and the subjunctive
8. The impersonal form in English
Ways
1. Withe the pronoun you (it is equivalent of SE or the impersonal second person singular in Spanish)
2. With the pronoun they
3. With the pronoun one
4. By means of the passive voice (=SE)
5. With the neuter pronoun it (in expressions about the
weather, temperature, etc.)
6. With there + to be = haber
There + other verbs (seem, appear)
9. Ways of expressing negation in English
Ways 1. By adding the adverb not to the verb
a) Auxiliary verbs
b) Modal verbs
c) The imperative in the first person plural
2. With the auxiliary do + not
a) do
not / does not to for the negative imperative of full verbs in the present
b) don't
for the negative imperative in the 2nd person singular
c) did
not to form the negative of the past
3. With the verb to fail (= no acertar, fallar)
4. With any negative particle, such as never, nobody, none.
10. The impossibility of a double negative
The use of a negative particle when the
verb has already been negated is considered substantard even though such use is quite common.
In order to avoid such a double
negative:
a) use a negative verb and a particle negative in meaning but not in form.
b) use a negative particle (negatively marked) but with the verb in the affirmative.
11. Classes of questions
1. Yes-No Questions
* they expect the answer yes/no à
Do you like cheese?
* rising intonation
2.
Wh-Questions
* they ask for specific information à What would you kike to drink?
* if the question word is used with a preposition:
a) the preposition at the beginning of the sentence
b) the preposition at the end: [What ... for? What ... like? always at the end]
3.
Alternatiave Questions
* they expect one or two alternatives à Are you going to have cheese or lam?
* rising-falling intonation
12. Tag questions: the concept of tag questions and their types
* It is attached to the end of sentences
in the manner of Spahish verdad?
* Types a) The tag is the opposite of the statement
b) The
tag is the same kind as the statement
13. Type a) Tag Questions
1. If the sentence is negative, the tag
will be affirmative à John hasn't come yet, has he?
If the sentence is affirmative, the tag will be negative à
Peter has already left, hasn't he?
2. If the previous sentence does not
contain an auxiliary, do is used in the tag à
John likes tea, doesn't he?
14. Intonation in type a) Tag Questions
* Rising: the speaker is not completely sure of his statement à
He isn't married, is he?
* Falling: the speaker is certain of his statement à
It isn't cold today, is it?
15. Type b) Tag Questions
* In affirmative statement is followed
by an affirmative tag and viceversa à So she is waiting for me, is she?
* The value of these tagas is nearly
always one of recalling or summing up à So you didn't take my car, didn't you?
16. Intonation in type b)Tag Questions
* Always has a rising tone
17. Other types of questions
a) declarative questions
b) exclmatory questions
c) rhetorical questions
d) echo questions
18. Declarative questions
* These are the same as Yes-No
Questions, except that they have the form of a stataement instead of a question.
* Rising tone
19. Exclamatory questions
* These are in fact exclmations in the
form of a question and are nearly always negative although they can be positive.
* Falling tone
20. Rhetorical questions
* They are equivalent of an assertion
with a meaning opposite to what is being asked
* Rising tone
21. Echo questions
1. Echo questions that confirm
* to ask for confirmation of part or all of a statement which we have just heard
* Rising tone
2. Echo Questions that clarify
* to ask for clarification of what is said by our interlocutor
* Falling tone
3. Echo Questions about questions
* a question is answered with another question
* Rising tone
22. Ways of expressing a Command
1. With the imperative without a subject
* in the second person
* negataive: don't
2. With the imperative accompanied by a subject
* 2nd p. with you to emphasize
* with a subject in the 3rd per.
* negative: don't
* often introduced by an adverbial particle
3. 'Let' is also used with the 1st p. plural accussative (US)
* negative: not, also don't
* also used in the 3rd person.
4. With 'do' and the verb in the imperative
* to insist upon something or to persuade.
5. By means of abbreviated verbless sentences
6. By using the modal auxiliaryies: must, will, shall + to be
Note: sometimes just
is used to reinforce the imperative
23. Tag Questions with the imperative
The tags will you, won't you, shall we...
24. Ways of expressing Requests or Damands
* Can you ...?
* May I ...?
* Could you ...?
* Will you ...?
* Would you ...?
* Would you mind ...?
* Would you be so kind as ...?
25. Ways of expressing Exclamations
1. With what and how.
2. In the form of a question (falling
tone)
3. With other words of an emphatic
nature (such = tal; so = tan)
4. In echo questions, by repeating part
of our interlocutor's utterance with an exclamative intonation
26. Exclamative formulae and interjections
* Greeting and farewells
* Toasts
* Slogans
* Expletives
* Cries for help
* Warnings
* Surprise, indignation, irritation