英语小镇

19-1 Connectives That Express Cause and Effect, Contrast, and Condition
Using Because of and Due to
(a) Because the weather was cold, we stayed home.	Because introduces an adverb clause; it is followed by a subject and verb, as in (a).
(b) Because of the cold weather, we stayed home. (c) Due to the cold weather, we stayed home.	*Because of* and *due to* are phrasal prepositions, they are followed by a noun object, as in (b), (c).
(d) Due to the face that weather was cold, we stayed home.	Sometimes, usually in more formal writing, due to is followed by a noun clause introduced by the fact that.
(e) We stayed home because of the cold weather. We stayed home due to the cold weather. We stayed home *due to* the fact that the weather was cold .	Like adverb clauses, these phrases can also follow the main clause, as in (e).
19-2 Using Transitions to show cause and effect: Therefore and consequently
(a) Al failed the test because he didn't study. (b) Al didn't study. *Therefore,* he failed the test. (c) Al didn't study. *Consequently*, he failed the test.	Positions of A Transition. (a), (b), and (e) have the same meaning. *Therefore* and Consequently mean "as a result." In grammar, they are called transitions ( or conjunctive adverbs). Transitions connect the ideas between tow sentences.
(d) Al didn't study. *Therefore,* he failed the test. (e) Al didn't study. He, therefore, he failed the test. (f) Al didn't study. He failed the test, *therefore.* Positions of A Transition. *transition* + *S + V* (+ rest of sentence) *S + transition +V* (+ rest of sentence) *S + V* (+ rest of sentence) + transition (g) Al didn't study, So he failed the test.	A transition occurs in the second of two related sentences. Note the patterns and punctuation in the examples. A period (not a comma) is used at the end of the first sentence. The transition has several positions in the second sentence. The transition is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Compare: A transition (therefore) has several possible positions within the second sentence of the pair, as in (d), (e), and (f). A conjunction (so) has only one possible position: between the two sentences. So cannot more around in the second sentence as therefore can.
19-3 Other ways of Expressing Cause and Effect: Such... That and So... That
(a) Because the weather was nice, we went to the zoo. (b) It was *such nice weather that* we went to the zoo. (c) The weather was *so nice that* we went to the zoo.	Examples (a), (b) and (c) have same meaning.
(d) It was *such good coffee that* I had another cup. (e) It was *such a foggy day that* we couldn't see the road.	*Such...that* encloses a modified noun: *Such* + adjective + noun + *that*
(f) The coffee is so hot that I can't drink it. (g) I'm so hungry that I could ear a horse. (h) She speaks so fast that I can't understand her. (i) He walked so quickly that I couldn't keep up with him.	*So...that* encloses an adjective or adverb: So + adjective or adverb + *that*
(j) She made so many mistakes that she failed the exam. (k) He has so few friends that he is always lonely. (l) She has *so much money that* she can buy whatever she wants. (m) He had *so little trouble* with the test that he left twenty.	So...that is used with many, few, much, and little.
(n) It was such a good book (that) I couldn't put it down. (o) I was *so hungry* (that) I didn't wait for dinner to eat.	Sometimes, primarily in speaking, that is omitted.
19-4 Expressing purpose: Using so that
(a) I turned off the TV in order to enable my roommate to study in peace and quiet. (b) I turned off the TV *so (that)* my roommate could study in peace and quiet.	*In order to* expresses purpose. In (a): I turned off the TV for a purpose. The purpose was to make it possible for my roommate to study in peace and quiet. *So that* also expresses purpose. It expresses the same meaning as *in order to.* The word "that" is often omitted, especially in speaking.
So That + can or could: (c) I'm going to cash a check so that I can buy my textbooks. (d) I cashed a check *so that I could* buy my textbooks.	*So that* is often used of in order to when the idea of ability is being expressed. Can is used in the adverb clause for a present/future meaning. In (c): So that I can buy = in order to be able to buy. Could is used after *so that* in past sentences.
So that + will/simple present or would: (e) I'll take my umbrella so that I won't get wet. (f) I'll take my umbrella sot that I don't get wet. (g) Yesterday I took my umbrella *so that I wouldn't* get wet.	In (e): So that I won't get wet = in order to make sure that I won't get wet. In (f): It is sometimes possible to use the simple present after *so that* in place of *will;* the simple present expresses a future meaning. Would is used in past sentence; as in (g).

19-5 Showing Contrast (Unexpected Result)
Adverb Clauses: even though, although, though (a) Even though it was cold, I went swimming. (b) Although it was cold, I went swimming. (c) Though it was cold, I went swimming.
Conjunctions: but... anyway, but...still, yet...still (d) It was cold, but I went swimming anyway. (e) It was cold, *but* I still went swimming . (f) It was cold, *yet* I still went swimming .
Transitions: nevertheless, nonetheless, however...still (g) It was cold. Nevertheless, I went swimming . (h) It was cold; nonetheless, I went swimming . (i) It was cold. However, I still went swimming .
Preposition: despite, in spite of, despite the fact that, in spite of the face that (j) I went swimming despite the cold weather. (k) I went swimming in spite of the cold weather.

19-6 Showing Direct Contrast
Adverb Clauses: while, whereas (a) Mary is rich, *while* John is poor. (b) Mary is rich, whereas John is poor. (c) *Whereas* Mary is rich, John is poor.
Conjunction: but (d) John is poor, but Mary is rich.
(e) Mary is rich, *however,* John is poor. (f) John is poor; Mary is rich, however. (j) Mary is rich. John, *on the other hand,* is poor.
19-7 Expressing Conditions: Using otherwise and or (else)
Adverb Clause: (a) If I don't eat breakfast, I get hungry. (b) You'll be late if you don't hurry. (c) You'll get wet unless you take you umbrella.	If and unless state conditions that produce certain results.
Transition: (d) I always eat breakfast. *Otherwise, I get hungry during class. (e) You'd better hurry. Otherwise, you'll be late. (f) Take your umbrella. Otherwise*, you'll get wet.	*Otherwise* expresses the idea "if the opposite is true, then there will be a certain result." In (d): otherwise = if I don't eat breakfast.
Conjunction: (g) I always eat breakfast, or (else) I get hungry during class. (h) You'd better hurry, or (else) you'll be late. (i) Take your umbrella, or (else) you'll get wet.	*Or else* and otherwise have the same meaning.

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