英语小镇

16-1 Coordinating Conjunctions: Parallel Structure
One used of a conjunction is to connect words or phrases that have the same grammatical function in a sentence. This used of conjunctions called "parallel structure." The conjunctions used in this pattern are and, but, or, nor. These words are called "coordinating conjunctions."
(a) *Steve and* his friend are coming to dinner. (b) Susan raised her hand and snapped her fingers. (c) He is waving his arms and (is) shouting at us. (d) These shoes are old *but comfortable.* (e) He wants to watch TV or (to) listen to some music.	In (a): noun + and + noun In (b): verb + and + verb In (c): verb + and +verb (The second auxiliary may be omitted if it is the some as the first auxiliary usually. In (d): adjective + but + adjective In (e): infinitive + or + infinitive (The second to is omitted)
(f) Steve, Joe, and *Alice* are coming to dinner. (g) Susan *raised* her hand, snapped her fingers, and *asked* a question. (h) The colors in that fabric are *red, gold, black, and green.*	A Parallel structure may contain more than two parts. In a series, commas are used to separate each unit. The final comma that precedes the conjunction is optional; also correct: Steve, Joe and Alice are coming to dinner.
(i) Incorrect: Steve, and Joe are coming to dinner.	Note: No commas are used if there are only two parts to a parallel structure.
16-2 Paired conjunctions: Both...And; Not Only...But Also; Either...Or; Neither...Nor
(a) *Both* my mother *and* my sister *are* here. (b) *Not* *only* my mother *but also* my *sister is* here. (c) *Not only* my sister *but also* my *parents are* here. (d) Neither my mother nor my *sister is* here. (e) Neither my sister nor my *parents are* here.	Two subjects connected by *both...and* take a plural verb, as in (a). When two subjects are connected by *not only...but also, either... or, neither...nor,* the subject that is closer to the verb determines, whether the verb is singular or plural.
(f) The research project will take both time and* money.* (g) Yesterday it *not only* rained but (also)* snowed.* (h) I'll take either chemistry or physics next quarter. (j) That book is neither interesting nor accurate.	Notice: the parallel structure in the examples. The same grammatical from should follow each part of the paired conjunctions. In (f): both + noun + *and* noun. In (g): not only + verb + *but also* + verb. In (h): *either* + noun + or + noun. In (i): *neither* + adjective + *nor* + adjective.
16-3 Combining Independent Clauses with Coordinating Conjunctions
(a) It was raining hard. There was a strong wind. (b) Incorrect punctuation: It was raining hard, there was a strong wind.	Example (a) contains two independent clauses (two complete sentences). Notice: the punctuation. A period, not a comma, is used to separate two independent clauses. The punctuation in (b) is not correct, the error in (b) is called "a run-on sentence."
(c) It was raining hard, *and* there was a strong wind. (d) It was raining hard *and* there was a strong wind. (e) It was raining hard. And there was a strong wind.	A conjunction may be used to connect two independent clauses. Punctuation: Usually a comma immediately precedes the conjunction, as in (c). In short sentences the comma is sometimes omitted, as in (d). In informal writing a conjunction sometimes begins a sentence, as in (e).
(f) He was tired, so he went to bed. (g) The child hid behind his mother's skirt, for he was afraid of the dog. (h) She did not study, yet she passed the exam.	In addition to and, but, or, and *nor,* other conjunctions are used to connect two independent clauses: So (meaning "therefore, as a result") for (meaning "because") yet (meaning "but, nevertheless) A comma always precedes *so, for,* and *yet* when they are used as coordinating conjunctions.
17-1 Adverb Clauses: Introduction
(a) When we were in New York, we saw several plays. (b) We saw several plays when we were in New York. (c) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.+ (d) He went to bed because he was sleepy. (adverb clause)	The sentence with underline is adverb clause. Punctuation: When an adverb clause precedes on independent clause, as in (a), a comma used to separate the clause. When the adverb clause follows, as in (b), usually no comma is used. Like *when, because* introduce an adverb clause.
Incorrect: (e) When we were in New York. We say several plays. (f) He went to bed. Because he was sleepy.	Adverb clauses are dependent clause. They can not stand alone as a sentence in writing English. They must be connect to an independent clause.

17-2 Adverb Clauses: Using adverb clauses to show cause and effect
Because: (a) Because he was sleepy, he went to bed. (b) He went to bed because he was sleepy.	An adverb clause may precede or follow the independent clause. Notice the punctuation in (a) and (d).
Now that: (c) Now that the semester is over, I'm going to rest a few days and then take a trip. (d) Jack lost his job. Now that he's unemployed, he can't pay his bills.	Now that means "because now." In (c): Now that the semester is over." Now that is used for present cause of present or future situations.
Since: (e) Since Monday is a holiday, we don't have to go to work. (f) Since you are good cook and I'm not, you should cook the dinner.	When *since* is used to mean "because", it expresses a know cause; it means "because it is a fact that" or "given that it is true that." Cause and effect sentences with since say," Given the fact that X is true, Y is a result." as in (e). Note: Since has two meanings. One is "because". It is also used in time clause: Since I came here, I have met many people.
17-3 Expressing Contrast (unexpected Result): Using Even Though
(a) Because the weather was cold, I *didn't go* swimming. (b) *Even though* the weather was cold, I went swimming. (c) Because I wasn't tired, I didn't go to bed. (d) Even though I wasn't tired, I went to bed.	*Because* is used to express expected results. *Even though* is used to express unexpected results. Note: Like *because, even though* introduces on adverb clause.
17-4 Showing direct contrast: while and whereas
(a) Mary is rich, while John is poor. (b) John is poor, *while* Mary is rich. (c) Mary is rich, *whereas* John is poor. (d) *Whereas* Mary is rich, the phone rang. Compare (e) While I was studying, the phone rang.	*While* and *whereas* are used to show direct contrast: "this" is exactly the opposite of "that". *While* and *whereas* may be used with the idea of either clause with no difference in meaning. *Whereas* mostly occurs in formal written English. Note: A comma is usually used even if the adverb clause comes second. *While* is also used in time clauses and means "during the time that," as in (e).
17-5 Expressing Conditions In Adverb Clauses
(a) If it rains, the streets get wet.	If-clauses (also called "adverb clauses of condition") present possible conditions. The main clause expresses results. In (a): Possible condition = it rains Result =the street get wet.
(b) If it rains tomorrow, I will take my umbrella.	A present tense, not a future tense, is used in an if-clause even though the verb in the if-clause may refer to a future event or situation, as (b).
17-6 Adverb Clauses of Condition:
Using Whether or Not and Even if (a) I'm going to go swimming tomorrow whether or not it is cold. (or whether or it is cold or not)	*whether or not* express the idea that neither this condition nor that condition matters; the result will be the same. In (a):" If it is cold, I'm going swimming. If it is not cold, I'm going swimming. I don't care about the temperature. It doesn't matter."
Even if: (b) I have decided to go swimming tomorrow. Even if the weather is cold, I'm going to go swimming.	Sentence with even if are close in meaning to those with *whether or not. Even if* gives the idea that a particular condition does not matter. The result will not change.

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