The Mediterranean is a relatively small Inland Sea, extending from Gibraltar in the west, to the Levant coast in the east, brining value to the economies of coastal nations, and bringing nations together and acting a s a cross road for the countries and cultures from Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Mediterranean Sea is of great political importance as a maritime outlet for the countries of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, via the Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, Dardanelles, and Black Sea. Also for European and American access to the petroleum of Libya and Algeria and the Persian Gulf region, via the Suez Canal and overland pipelines. Malta and Sicily have commanded shipping through the strategically located Straits of Sicily and Messina. Other important islands include the Balearic Islands (Spain); Corsica (France); Sardinia (Italy); Cyprus; and the Ionian, Cyclades, Dodecanese, and Aegean islands (Greece). Main political instruments The legal framework for the conservation of natural habitats and species in the Mediterranean is provided by:
the Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Convention) (1976), the Convention on the
Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn Convention) (1979),
the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention) (1979)
and
the RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (1971).
CITES: the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1975) (Implemented in the European Union via CITES Regulations)
UNEP/MAP (Mediterranean Action Plan), is the body responsible for the implementation of the Barcelona Convention in the Mediterranean, through MEDPOL (Mediterranean Pollution Monitoring and Research Programme). CIESM (International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea) provides the scientific framework for the exploration of the Mediterranean.
European Union Member States with shorelines on the Mediterranean Sea implement the conventions through the EU Birds and Habitats Directives for the protection of coastal and marine habitats and species. (EEA 2001)
1.1 International collaboration There are several conventions, directives and action plans for nature protection in the Mediterranean Sea:
Action plan for the conservation of cetaceans in the Mediterranean Sea (UNEP/IUCN, 1994; UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1998a; UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1998b).
A special Agreement for the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic area (ACCOBAMS) was made in 1996 under the Bonn Convention.
Action plan for the management of the Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) (UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1999a).
Action plan for the conservation of Mediterranean marine turtles (Demetropoulos and Chadjichristophorou, 1995; UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1998c; UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1999b).
Action plan for the conservation of marine vegetation in the Mediterranean Sea (UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1999d).
1.2 Oceanography The Mediterranean is at present a highly diverse marine habitat, both in terms of species and ecosystems, and it is a highly complex environment. In ecological terms it is a relatively young sea, a remnant of the vast ancient ocean called the Tethys Sea. The Tethys Sea, in the Mesozoic era separated Laurasia from Gondwanaland, it was squeezed almost shut in a tectonic episode of the Oligocene Epoch, 30 million years ago, when the crustal plates carrying Africa and Eurasia collided. The formation of the Alpine fold mountains caused the sea to separate into the Mediterranean, the Black, the Caspian, and the Aral seas, which evolved in a climate that has been more or less benign and relatively stable. Like all complex systems, it has a very delicate and easily perturbed stability and the most significant disturbing factor in recent times has probably been man. (EEA 2001). The land adjacent to shoreline is frequently mountainous. Earthquakes and volcanic disturbances are frequent. The waters of the Mediterranean come mostly from the Atlantic Ocean, the Black Sea and from rainfall. Several large rivers empty into the Mediterranean. The largest include the Ebro of Spain, the Nile of Egypt, the Po of Italy, and the Rhone of France. The Niles contribution has been less water since 1964, when the Aswan High Dam in Egypt began partly blocking its flow. Most parts of the Mediterranean have a semidiurnal tide, two high tides and two low tides about every 24 hours, the average difference between a high tide and a low tide in the Mediterranean is only about 1 foot (0.3 meters). A strong current flows into the Mediterranean from the Black Sea, another flows in from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar. Beneath the surface current, a deeper current of dense salty water flows from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, the water of the Mediterranean is saltier than that of the Atlantic due to evaporation. The Mediterranean Sea consists of two main basins:
A western basin separated from an eastern basin by the Sicilian Channel. The western basin has a level floor at 2700m.
The eastern basin made up of, The Aegean, Ionian, Levantine and Tyrrhenian Seas, the morphology of which is alternating deep depressions and highs.
The region around the sea is characterised by a warm, dry climate for most of the year, with abundant sunshine, most of the rainfall occurring in winter. Strong local winds, such as the hot, dry sirocco from the south and the cold, dry mistral and bora from the north, blow across the sea. The warm, dry climate gives the sea a high rate of evaporation.
1.3 The Mediterranean Sea: Marine Ecosystems
The Mediterranean Sea is characterised by oligotrophic waters, which are rich in oxygen and poor in nutrients, (oligotrophy increases from west to east), and a deep-water temperature above 13 degrees Centigrade. This is reflected in the composition of its marine biological communities. Primary production is characterised by phytoplankton blooms, strong in spring and lesser blooms in autumn.(EEA 2001) There is an imbalance in the distribution of species across the Mediterranean Sea, numbers being greater in the west. At the community level, in contrast to the Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea marine communities are rich in species with short life cycles and populations of small individuals. There is still little understanding of the complex relationship between species diversity and ecosystems in the Mediterranean Sea. (Bellan-Santini et al., 1994). The fauna and flora of the Mediterranean Sea is abundant and diverse. Approximately 8-9% of the world’s marine species can be found in the Mediterranean Sea, with approximately 10-12,000 marine species recorded. The Mediterranean hosts several endangered marine species:
the Monk seal (Monachus monachus); now only about 350-400 now survive in the world. (UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1999a)
the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) and Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta), which nest on Mediterranean beaches. (UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1998c)
Eighteen cetacean species, of which seven can be observed throughout the year: the Pilot Whale (Globicephala melaena), Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus), Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus), Common Dolphin (Delphinus delphis), Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), Bottlenose Dolphin a (Tursiops truncatus) and the Risso’s Dolphin (Grampus griseus). (UNEP-RAC/SPA, 1998b)
the endemic sea-grass Posidonia oceanica , which plays a role in coast protection as a buffer to currents and waves.(EEA, 1999)
1.4 Ecosystem Balance The Mediterranean Sea is a complex interface between man and nature. The rocky sea bottoms provide anchorages for algae and invertebrates, including corals, molluscs and crustaceans. These in turn act as refuges, feeding and spawning grounds for many commercial fish species. These fish are a source of food and/or livelihood for the 150 million resident population of the Mediterranean coasts. (EEA 2001) There is a considerable threat to ecosystems and biodiversity from climate change. The Mediterranean Sea with its high ecosystem diversity, particularly in the coastal zone, is particularly vulnerable. The Mediterranean Sea’s coastal zone is already under pressure from urbanisation, increased tourism, aquaculture and over-exploitation of marine resources. Its highly diverse ecosystems are very sensitive to any environmental perturbation, far more so than less complex systems. The main impacts fall into the following categories:
Alien Introduced species
Climate change and sea level rise
Habitat degradation
Unsustainable use of marine resources
Pollution
The most diverse marine environments lie off the mainland coasts, islands and in the shallower seas, including a great part of the Adriatic Sea, the Bay of Gibraltar and the Gulf of Gabes off Tunisia. (EEA 2001) The waters in the western Mediterranean are richer in species than those in the east. However species sensitive to disturbance, such as the monk seal and loggerhead turtle, have disappeared from the west and are represented now largely by populations in the east. 1.5 Habitats: Seagrass beds and areas where natural upwellings exist are the most productive marine ecosystems, they provide feeding grounds for seabirds and marine organisms. 1.5.1 Seagrass beds Beds of seagrass fringe the major part of the Mediterranean coastline, occurring in the subtidal shallows up to 40m deep. They are most extensive in the Gulf of Gabes off Tunisia and the Gulf of Sirte off Libya. They provide food resources and shelter for over 650 marine species, including fish, crustaceans and turtles. They also act as a barrier and stabiliser, protecting the coast from wave action. Despite the importance of seagrass beds to the fishing industry, when combined with wetlands they produce more than 80% of the annual fish yield and to the health of the sea and coastline in general, they have declined in extent significantly in recent decades. In some places along the coast and in shallow marine waters, algae dominate, acting as a refuge for hundreds of smaller marine organisms; sponges, jellyfish, seafans, mollusc’s etc. Beyond the seagrass beds on the sea floor, coral-like algae grow in colonies on hard surfaces, forming concretions of sea debris. The best examples are off the coasts of France and Spain. Seaweed communities occur in areas of sub-tidal sand or rocky coast, especially along the Aegean and Adriatic coastlines. They support economically-important populations of sponges, molluscs and crustaceans. 1.5.2 Coastal Just over 50% of the Mediterranean coast is rocky or lined by high cliffs, there are other areas of particular species abundance, these are largely concentrated in wetlands and lagoons. Wetlands are generally consist of a mosaic of habitats, including mud flats, salt marshes, estuaries, sand dunes and beaches, all being important to plants and animals, particularly birds. 1.5.3 Delta Deltas form where the sediment from large rivers settles and creates numerous river channels and a wide variety of habitats, such as salt marshes, sand dunes, lagoons etc. The major deltas occur on these rivers: the Po, Ebro, Rhone, Evros, Çukrova and Nile. 1.5.4 Lagoons The weak tides of the Mediterranean Sea result in many lagoons along its coastline. These areas support large numbers of small plants and animals that provide food for a wide range of birds. Consequently lagoons become important fuelling stops, breeding sites and wintering grounds for many birds, including the flamingo and globally threatened species. 1.5.5 Sand Dunes Sand dunes are not a dominant feature of the Mediterranean coastline nor do they support a large animal or plant community. The 2 species of marine turtle that breed in the Mediterranean nest on sand dunes or beaches feature of the Mediterranean coastline. 1 5.6 Upwellings and Currents There are a number of sites where wind driven upwellings occur along the coast, between the Ligurian Sea and the Gulf of Lyons and along the North African coast, which support areas of high productivity. The surface currents entering the Mediterranean from the Atlantic also circulate in the Bay of Gibraltar and provide abundant nutrients. The highest levels of productivity occur along the coasts, near population centres and along the boundaries of the Atlantic surface water entering the Mediterranean. Productivity appears to be enhanced by turbulence and nutrients near the coast and by the influx of nutrients from rivers, densely populated areas, and phosphate industries near population centres and rivers. Riverine flow along the Spanish coast introduces pollution from 40 percent of the coastal population of the Mediterranean, which is likely to affect productivity. High productivity near the Gulf of Taranto may be influenced by outflows of the nutrient-rich Adriatic. Gyres, upwellings, and the influx of Atlantic water appears to contribute to high productivity in the Sea of Alboran, the Gulf of Sirte, and eastern and western Mediterranean. Levels of production decline rapidly with distance offshore from riverine sources and are low in the south-eastern Mediterranean and Levant regions. (Data in section 1.4 compiled from: http://ims.wcmc.org.uk/ipieca/regions/med/med_eco.html) 1.6 Commercial important fisheries species 1.6.1 Fishes The biological productivity of the Mediterranean is generally low, but the economical value of the catch is high. Production of pelagic and demersal fishes is higher in areas where nutrients are relatively concentrated; the coastal areas, shallow seas, upwellings and Seagrass beds indicated above. In the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean production is less than along the northern shores. Demersal species: (species living in close relation with the bottom and depending on it)
European hake (Merluccius merluccius)
Red mullet (Mullus barbatus) and striped red mullet (Mullus surmuletus)
Blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou)
Blue and red shrimp (Aristeus antennatus)
Pelagic species: (species that spend most of their life swimming in the water column with little contact with or dependency on the bottom.)
Anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus)
Sardine (Sardina pilchardus)
Sardinella (Sardinella aurita).
Large pelagics:
Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus)
Swordfish (Xiphias gladius)
Albacore (Thunnus alalunga)
Their preferred habitat is in shallow well-lit rock outcrops in Seagrass beds or algal colonies. They occur in commercial quantities along the northern Mediterranean coast east of the Gulf of Lyons and along the southern coast east of Algeria. 1.6.2 Corals There are 2 coral species in the Mediterranean, known as red coral and black coral. They form colonies on hard surfaces in places with low light, including caves, below 50 to 200m.
Red coral is the main species of commercial value in the Mediterranean, being used for the production of jewellery. In the past commercial quantities of the species were available off the coast of Spain, Algeria and Sardinia. Despite increasingly sophisticated harvesting methods, yields have been declining at an alarming rate. 1.6.3 Shellfish Molluscs are one of the more valuable marine resources in the Mediterranean. Over 60 species of bivalves are exploited at various levels. Many occur intertidally or in the shallow sublittoral zones. Several species are cultivated, mostly in coastal lagoons and brackish-water lakes.
Mussel culture has expanded at an explosive rate, partly as a result of enrichment in areas such as the Gulf of Lyons and the Adriatic, where river outflows carry increasing amounts of nutrients.
Clams in the Adriatic supported one of the single most valuable fisheries in the Mediterranean until the stocks were exhausted. 1.6.4 Sponges
Horny sponges are a valuable traditional resource. Commercial species include Hippospongia communis, Spongia officinalis, Spongia agaricina, Spongia zimoca and Spongia nitens.
2 Mediterranean Sea, Environmental Impacts:
2.1 Alien species More than alien 500 species have entered the Mediterranean since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1876. Additionally, ships have passively transported others either as fouling on ship hulls or in ballast tanks. Some species have been imported for aquaculture. According to updated information, the number of alien fish species has increased from 35 to 84, and that of molluscs from 60 to 125. Some species have developed to a point where they are of commercial interest. The impact of the intruders on the natural environment is usually negative. Some intruders have had catastrophic effects. The tropical alga Caulerpa taxifolia was recorded for the first time in the western Mediterranean in 1984. It contains a toxin, which may hinder the growth of other organisms. According to recent observations, it has now reached the Adriatic and threatens the eastern Mediterranean (UNEP, 1998). 2.2 Human Activity Human activity around the semi-enclosed Mediterranean Sea has resulted in considerable impact upon the environment, including degradation of both coastal and marine habitats. As in many other marine environments it has also impacted upon species diversity and there is concern with regard to future integrity of ecosystems and their sustainability in the Mediterranean Sea. The coastal population of the Mediterranean Sea is thought to be close to 130 – 150 million, with tourism pushing this much higher seasonally. (EEA, 1999) Other human inputs, which impact upon the Mediterranean environment include, waste from marine, commercial and domestic source, urbanisation of coastal areas, tourism and agricultural pollution.
2.4 Population Growth
The combined population of the Mediterranean Sea coastal states rose to 450 million in 1997 from 246 million in 1960, with 30% of this population concentrated in coastal areas. This population growth in coastal areas has implications for natural resources including water resources and fisheries. (EEA, 1999)
2.5 Urbanisation and tourism The 150 million people living along the Mediterranean coast produce 3.8 billion cubic metres of wastewater annually. The 220 million tourists visiting the Mediterranean region every year produce an additional 2.5 million cubic metres. These figures are increasing year on year. (UNEP-RAC, 1995). The very presence of tourists puts pressure on the marine environment. Tourism is increasingly concentrated in coastal regions, the impacts of this pressure can be seen in a number of areas including, land use, pressure on natural resources including fisheries and water resources, and increased pollution; 80% of the urban sewage produced is discharged untreated. 2.6 Agriculture Agriculture is a common activity in most Mediterranean Sea coastal communities. Cultivation, pasture, animal feed lots, dairy farming, orchards and aquaculture, are all non-point sources of water pollution. The land-locked waters of the Mediterranean Sea have a very low renewal rate (80 to 90 years), and so are extremely sensitive to pollution. Additional impacts originate from, agricultural runoffs that ultimately contaminate the Mediterranean Sea. Run-off water, sediment transport and leaching carry various substances including, phosphorus, nitrogen, pesticides, metals pathogens, salts and trace elements into ground water and rivers and ultimately into the Mediterranean Sea. (EEA, 1999)
2.7 Marine pollution
Between 1987 and 1996, approximately 22,000 tonnes of oil entered the Mediterranean Sea, mainly from shipping incidents, it is believed at the present time that oil pollution has had little impact on marine life, at the scale of the whole Mediterranean Sea, however, locally, the effects have been serious. (EEA, 1999).
2.8 Global Warming and Climate Change
Studies carried out by UNEP/MAP conclude that the impacts upon the Mediterranean Sea could include, drought, floods, storms, changes to sea water temperature and salinity current flows, sea-level rise and reduction in biodiversity.
Sea-level rise is likely to be one of the biggest human induced impacts upon the coastal zone and its ecosystems. This will mainly result from thermal expansion or the sea water and ice-sheet melting. 2.9 Pollution and Ecosystem Health Approximately half of the organic inputs to the Mediterranean are from industrial sources. The remainder derived from human sewage and agricultural. Approximately 60 to 65 percent of organic material entering the Mediterranean come from runoff and discharge, and rivers transport the rest.
Close to discharge points, nutrient inputs have locally negative impacts on the diversity of Mediterranean fauna and flora, the effects of the nutrients on the entire Mediterranean may be to increase fishery productivity. Satellite imagery indicates high phytoplankton productivity near riverine plumes and population centres, with associated higher levels of fisheries productivity. (EEA, 1999). The effects of anthropogenic nutrient enrichment is a major concern in the upper Adriatic, caused by runoff, polluted discharges of the River Po, and additionally, extensive coastal development, the effect of which is amplified by a large influx of tourists in the summer. Planktonic blooms and sewage contamination of coastal waters have caused health problems associated with ingestion of contaminated shellfish. It is believed that a moderate, controlled, level of nutrient enrichment in oligotrophic systems may increase the productivity of some economically important species. Conversely, such discharges are a cause for concern, regarding, discharge of non-biodegradable contaminants and the presence of noxious and toxic micro-organism blooms close to the discharge point. 2.10 Fisheries Impacts The Mediterranean Sea is also under threat from the commercial fishing due to over fishing, illegal fishing, including the now illegal use of driftnets. Most of the Mediterranean Sea is categorised as international waters. There is an increasingly large fleet operating without control, monitoring or management on the Mediterranean high seas. Fisheries in the Mediterranean Sea can be divided into those which are small scale (Artesinal and Inshore Fisheries) and concentrated in shallow coastal waters, and those which are industrial scale, employing large vessels offshore with deep bottom trawls. Total fishery annual landings for the Mediterranean Sea are recorded at around 1.2 million tonnes. A significant proportion of catches is under-reported and discards are estimated to be about 25% of the total catch. Demersal resources and anchovy are subject to high fishing pressure along most continental shelves. This leads to a situation where stocks are vulnerable to collapse if, for some reason such as unfavourable environmental conditions, they are unable to recruit themselves. Large pelagic, Highly Migratory species, such as tuna, bluefin, swordfish, bonito and dolphin fish, are similarly prone to overfishing and are considered to be in serious need of conservation measures. Small pelagics, with the exception of anchovy, don't seem to be heavily fished. The environmental impact of certain fishing gear is causing serious damage to marine habitats and species, even those protected species such as turtles, dolphins and whales. Overfishing and the bycatch of juveniles are causing the depletion of some commercial species, such as the bluefin tuna and swordfish.
3 Fisheries and Aquaculture
3.1 Culture and Economics Fishing has been a vital part of Mediterranean Culture for thousands of years. The Mediterranean has limited large-scale commercial fishing, but fishing is an important source of employment and food (Protein) for the people of the region. The main fisheries include anchovies, sardines, shrimp, and tuna, coral and sponges are also harvested from the sea. (EEA 2001) Most fisheries take place in the coastal waters and involve a large number of small vessels. Highly migratory species, such as tuna, are also exploited offshore. Of 900 fish species found in the Mediterranean, 100 are commercially exploited. The Fishing Sector in the four Mediterranean EC Member States (France, Greece, Italy and Spain) employs some 105,000 fishermen, 40 % of all Community fishermen, employed on 47 000 vessels, comprising almost half of EC fleet. Fisheries bring enormous social and economic value to the EC Mediterranean region with annual revenue from fisheries of approximately US$ 3.8 billion. Almost 1.5 million tonnes of fish are caught in the Mediterranean each year. Accounting for almost 20 % of the EC total volume production. The narrowness of the Mediterranean Seas continental shelf has influenced the nature of fishing in the region, this narrow continental shelf partly explains why most Mediterranean coastal States have not extended their exclusive fisheries limits beyond the 12 miles. 3.2 The Fisheries The inshore fishery of the Mediterranean has long been an important nutrition source for coastal residents. Fisheries in the Mediterranean are generally characterised by a short average life span, permitting rapid renewal of resources. These fisheries are multi-species in nature, thus presenting difficulties for the use of selective fishing gear. The use of particular fishing gear on individual boats depends on the season and fishing opportunities. There are a large number of ports for landing catches, dispersed along the Mediterranean’s an extensive coastline, thus making the collection of accurate fishing statistics difficult, if not impossible. Already by the early 1970s, a substantial proportion of the less productive Mediterranean’s southern shelves were being commercially exploited, even distant-water trawlers fished them, this, resulting in harvests of demersal resources close to the overall maximum sustainable yield of fish stocks in that area. The northern fish stocks were also already overexploited, this possibly reflected in the migration of northern trawlers to southern shelves and deeper waters. 3.3 Artisanal Fishing Artisanal fisheries have sustained Mediterranean coastal communities for generations. They account for approximately about 30 per cent of the total landings in the region. These artisanal fisheries are experiencing serious declines. Scientific studies have established that many of these fisheries are either fully exploited or over-exploited. Traditional fishing methods are now being replaced by technologically advanced more destructive practices. Bottom trawling near the shore is destroying important fish nursery grounds. The future of these fisheries, the livelihoods of the communities that depend on them are seriously at risk from environmental degradation. 3.4 Overfishing Excessive fishing effort out of proportion with available resources has resulted in smaller catch per unit effort and size at recruitment for demersal resources. The rising prices paid for Mediterranean demersal fish, crustaceans, and molluscs are among the highest in the world for these species. Relatively lower prices for pelagic fish, except anchovies, has resulted in more moderate exploitation rates of these species. Fishing not only reduces the abundance of the target species but also, as a secondary effect, that of other species, thereby reducing their abundance or modifying their relative size composition. These effects can be direct, by killing specimens, or indirect through the alteration of transfers of energy through trophic levels, leading to a decrease in the number of species Although it is likely that fishing effort in the Mediterranean increased in response to a rise in fish prices, especially for demersal species, most fisheries were probably operating close to Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) in the early 1970s. (EEA 2001) The effects of the Aswan Dam on the Nile outflow changed the hydrography of the Levant area in the late 1960s and were considered responsible for the decline in Sardinella production. Egypt’s marine fish catch had dropped significantly following the opening of the Aswan Dam in the mid- to-late 1960s, and its annual Mediterranean catch of small pelagic species declined from 25,000 Mt. to 3,000 Mt. between 1964 and the 1970s. Recent increases in fisheries production appear to reflect an increase in nutrient outflow in drainage waters from urban growth. In the Mediterranean, areas of high nutrient enrichment are geographically associated with increased fisheries yield, at least in the early stages of enrichment. However, there is evidence of growing negative impacts of overfishing and pollution on productive coastal systems. 3.5 Depletion of Fish stocks Historically, destructive and sometimes illegal fishing methods have also depleted fish stocks. Depleted fish stocks are also highlighted in undersized catch, of all blue-fin tuna and swordfish caught in the Mediterranean Sea 83% are undersized. With 22 Mediterranean countries plus Asian fishing fleets competing for the same fish resources, there has been a dramatic decline in fish stocks which have already declined to 20 per cent of natural levels in some areas. Because the Mediterranean is open to international high-sea fleets, impact also increases according to the size of gear, and fishing capacity of foreign industrial fleets targeting mainly bluefin tuna and swordfish. An increase of 12 % in the total catch of these species was observed between 1984-1994; the non-Mediterranean countries caught about 4 % of the total in 1994. As Mediterranean fish catches decline, a lack of political will on the part of the national governments of the region is allowing the short-term needs of the Mediterranean fishing industry to threaten the integrity of marine ecosystems and the livelihood and social structure of traditional coastal communities in the Mediterranean region. On the high seas, stocks of commercially and biologically important and highly migratory species, such as blue-fin tuna and swordfish, are overfished. This is caused by mismanaged fishing and open access not only to Mediterranean countries, but also to distant water fishing nations such as Japan and Korea. 3.5.1 Highly Migratory Fish Stocks 3.5.1.1 Swordfish (Xip/zias giadius) Swordfish are large, highly migratory predators distributed throughout the world's marine ecosystem. The target of the fishery in the Mediterranean is the Common European Swordfish (Xip/zias giadius), which is abundant off the Sicilian coasts and on the opposite coast of Calabria.
Two methods are employedto capture this species, that by harpoons, chiefly used for larger fish, and that by peculiarly constructed nets called Palam Uare. This fishery is very productive, and the average annual catch in Sicily and Calabria is reported to be 140,000 kilogrammes (138 tons). Mediterranean Sea stocks may be overfished (data are incomplete). 3.5.1.2 Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) Yearly in May, June and July on the Mediterranean Sea, commercial fishing vessels engage in fishing for one of the world's largest and most highly prized fish, the eastern Atlantic stock of northern bluefin tuna (BFT). This fishery takes place during the fishes spawning season. Many of the vessels are flying flags of convenience (FOC's) from various countries such as Panama, Belize, Honduras, and Sierra Leone. The bluefin tuna are large (some may reach a weight of 600 kg.), voracious fish and excellent swimmers, they are a gregarious species that migrates over long distances, to breed as well as to find food. The Mediterranean Sea is the only known spawning area for the eastern Atlantic population of bluefin tuna, north and east of the Balearic Islands of Spain. This species has been continually over-fished, since the early 1980s, the population of adult fish has decreased by 80%. There is also the pressing issue of the high by-catch of other species including sharks, sea turtles, swordfish associated with the pirate longline fishery for this species. Japan is the principal destination for bluefin tuna after its capture in the Mediterranean. Many vessels fishing for this species fail to comply with any international recommendations concerning bluefin tuna fisheries, but manage to evade all control and sanctioning systems given that they sail under flags of convenience from countries such as Panama, Honduras and Sierra Leona. All their captures are exported to Japan. A global treaty to address overfishing on the high seas entered into force on the 12 November 2001, "the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of December 10, 1982, Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks". This agreement, sets new, compulsory standards for managing highly migratory and shared fishery resources Provisions of the treaty develop conservation and management efforts by ensuring that the standards for determining when such measures are necessary are enhanced in favour of effective resource conservation. The countries bordering the Mediterranean must heed the warnings of those who express concern regarding the future of Mediterranean fisheries and fishing communities. They must take effective action to limit damage to the Mediterranean’s marine ecosystems. 3.6 Aquaculture The Mediterranean regional aquaculture production increased from 78 180 tonnes in 1984 to 248 460 tonnes in 1996. 3.6.1 Aquaculture and the Environment The expansion of marine aquaculture activities in the Mediterranean needs to be conducted with regard to the broader frame of integrated planning and regulation with the aim of minimising impacts. Marine aquaculture development must pay attention to site selection in order to ensure appropriate conditions for a successful activity, which should also be related to the ability of local ecosystems to absorb impacts without lasting harmful effects. Invariably in the Mediterranean as else where, environmental assessments prior to the development of mariculture activity is rare, the impact of aquaculture on the environment is neglected. Intensive aquaculture results in the creation of waste, which may stimulate and distort productivity and alter the abiotic and biotic characteristics of the water body. With regard to aquaculture expansion in the Mediterranean, microbial contamination is probably the most pressing issue today. The introduction of new organisms and alien (exotic) species nearly always poses a risk to the environment/ecosystem involved in the introduction, and therefore requires the greatest possible caution. 3.7 UN Food and Agriculture Organisation’s General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean United Nations (UN) Food and Agriculture Organisation’s (FAO) General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) is the body responsible for the management of Mediterranean Fisheries. But while all Mediterranean coastal states and Japan belong to the GFCM and the region’s fisheries are theoretically under its jurisdiction, there is a lack of political will amongst GFCM Member States to upset the status quo. When the GFCM adopts measures, the fact that members are free to opt out means that in reality little action is taken. This results in deleterious effects such as, low yields, overcapitalised fleets and impoverished ecosystems, the short-term needs of the region’s fishing industry being placed ahead of long-term sustainable exploitation of the Mediterranean marine ecosystems. This situation must be addressed if the GFCM is to become an effective body for the management of Mediterranean fisheries. 3.8 Unregulated fishing Unregulated fishing adds to the region’s fisheries problems, with flags of convenience being used as a way of avoiding fisheries controls. There is also a growing fleet of unregistered, commercial scale, ‘pirate’ fishing vessels, which operate without identification, in defiance of all international maritime law. 3.9 Fleet industrialisation and Conservation Issues The trend towards fleet industrialisation and increased capacity adds not only to the problem of declining resources in the Mediterranean but also to the difficulties of local fishermen who attempt to make a living in international waters. Many forums, through international agreements, are pressing Mediterranean States to take marine conservation seriously. These include the:
Convention on Biological Diversity
And
The UN Agreement on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. (The latter, recently ratified is the most the most far-reaching treaties ever negotiated to promote the conservation of marine fishes, as already discussed.)
But without political will and firm action by the national governments of the region, the fisheries in the Mediterranean and the future of the Mediterranean people dependent on their continued exploitation are a cause for serious concern. 3.10 Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) Reform Within the EC, the European Commission (DG Fisheries) wishes to extend and strengthen the application of the reformed CFP to the Mediterranean Sea, where circumstances differ greatly from those in northern fisheries. Currently, the CFP has only been partially applied to the Mediterranean. Under its current review of the CFP, the Commission will shortly propose an Action Plan specifically designed to tackle the problems of the EU fisheries sector in the Mediterranean Sea. With catches falling, and the fish that are caught of smaller size and some species becoming increasingly rare, it is in the interest of European Mediterranean Sea fishermen to reverse this decline. The Commission presented its first proposals for the reform of the CFP on 28 May 2001 in its Green Paper. More proposals, following the publication of the CFP Reform White Paper, including an "Action Plan for Fisheries Conservation in the Mediterranean" will follow shortly. Overall catches in the Mediterranean are falling and more fishing effort is required to maintain previous catch levels. Even if the situation is less dramatic than in the northern Europe waters, fishing industry jobs are still being lost: While international co-operation is essential to ensure sustainable fisheries throughout the Mediterranean, progress can be achieved by the EU sector. EU fishermen urgently need to comply with the existing fisheries conservation measures. There is a need for greater co-operation between fishermen and scientists. Proposed future measures could then be discussed on the basis of reliable and transparent data to which fishermen had contributed. With regard to highly migratory fish stocks, which form an important part of Mediterranean fisheries, there is an urgent need to manage these fish stocks in a sustainable manner at the EU level, in co-ordination with the relevant Regional Fisheries Organisations. Co-operation at all levels of interaction between the EU and other parties are crucial and the Commission believes that no effort should be spare to develop and strengthen it. The Commission has also proposed an end to public aid to the fleet. Instead of protecting the viability of the fleet, subsidies are weakening it by maintaining it at a level that encourages fisheries exploitation at a level beyond that at which fish stocks can be maintained at sustainable levels. The EU fleet can not possibly operate in a competitive manner if its survival depends on subsidies. Additionally jobs are being lost and incomes are reduced as a result of the effects of subsidies. Instead of helping to create more fishing capacity and fishing pressure, aid must be directed towards benefiting the sector. This should be achieved by compensating those who want to leave, by allocating aid for scrapping vessels, for early retirement schemes and to provide training and grants for those in the industry who wish to find alternative employment. The Commission has already made it clear that aid would, in any case, remain available to increase health and safety standards on board and to use more selective gear. The Commission also proposes that vessels, which are scrapped with public funds, should not replaced. Additions to fleet capacity must be financed with private money and only after an equivalent capacity has been permanently withdrawn also with the use of private finances. The economic problems experienced by the fleets have an impact on coastal areas. The Commission anticipates that in addition to the € 460 million that would be redirected from the fleet to social measures, further funding could be made available for additional welfare measures after 2004. Already, a number of Community conservation measures have been put into place. In December 1997, total allowable catches were fixed for tuna fisheries, following the recommendations of the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT). The Community is a member of both the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT), which also makes recommendations in relation to Mediterranean tuna. Fishing pressure and the threat of pollution in this densely populated area, make Mediterranean-wide conservation measures essential. The Community has adopted a dual approach to ensure sustainable fisheries in this area. In 1994, it set up common conservation measures banning the use of certain fishing techniques and methods, fixing some minimal net mesh sizes and sizes below which fish should not be landed. The Commission is also actively involved in negotiations with Mediterranean coastal States and other parties in order to increase co-operation in scientific research and to devise conservation measures for the whole Mediterranean. Strengthening of the General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean by giving it executive powers to comply with the provisions of the UN Straddling Fish Stocks Agreement would seem to be the best way to achieve these objectives. The Commission envisions a comprehensive plan for coastal areas that considers an integrated system of artificial reefs, hatcheries, mariculture, research, focusing on specific habitat areas to protect nurseries and damaged stocks and rebuild resources. Water parcels would be allocated based on management decisions involving various species and user groups. Co-operation among management, research, and harvesting groups will be required. Legal, administrative, financial, and institutional requirements to expedite artificial reefs include simplification of the procedure for state concession of coastal marine waters; consideration of an institutional liaison with the coastal regions; consideration of the coastal areas management and marine culture as a distinct problem when revising the law on fishing. Intensification and greater co-ordination of scientific studies of fish resources and the biological and oceanographic environment is necessary.
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