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Introduction Sylvicultura
Oeconomica (1713) was the first publication
in Continental Europe covering forestry alone. In the 432
pages of this work Hans Carl von Carlowitz, director of
metallurgy in the Electorate of Saxony has presented the
information collected during his lifetime about the
management, utilization and regeneration of "wild
trees" and forests formed from such trees. Table of contents of the original book by chapter and paragraph, as well as instructions about how to use it The original German edition is divided into two parts,
each part into a total of 30 chapters, and the chapters into
a total of 835 paragraphs. The paragraph headings thus form
a complete table of contents for the book. PART I CHAPTER ONE 1. German forests in the days of Tacitus. The Harz Forests - Sylva Hercynia. Their names and extent. 2. Greek and Roman writers on the German forests. A Roman study, Studium Geographicum. 3. Why the Germans loved their great forests. They provided them with a fortress. Protective thickets and their names. 4. The present state of German forests and their great usefulness. 5. The present-day forests of Harzwald. 6. Forests outside Germany. 7. The Pyrbaumer Forest in Cray. 8. The forests of Bavaria and Meissen. 9. The German forests of today are extensively overcut. 10. Are the forests in warm countries of more use than those in cold ones.
CHAPTER TWO 1. Why the old Germans had a special veneration for trees and forests. 2. Why they held religious ceremonies in the forest. 3. The secret places and temples hidden in the forest. 4. Holy forests and groves dedicated to different gods, and their location. 5. The old Germans believed that the forests and trees provided a place to live for certain gods. 6. Oracles which were located in the safety of the forest. 7. The birds and animals living in such forests were considered sacred. 8. Certain tree species were sacred to the gods. 9. Already according to the Old Testament, the tribes were obliged to respect forests and trees. 10. As were Christians in the New Testament. 11. The respect held by the ancient philosophers for trees and forests, e.g. Plato, Epicuros and their students. 12. The first home of mankind is located in the safety of the forests, as is the Garden of Paradise. 13. Example of such a connection in the Bible. 14. Why the old Germans thrived in the forests and found a livelihood there. 15. Great rulers have been interested in the forests, and worked on them. Examples from the Book of Solomon. 16. Cyrus and Diocletianus, for instance, were great friends of the forest. 17. The roman Empire and its "Mount Willow" (Monte viminalis). 18. Julius Caesar revered the forests and proposed statutes on their behalf. 19. The Bible gives trees majestic names. 20. There are towns and famous families whose names are derived from special trees of forests. 21. Whole nations who have called themselves after the forests. 22. The symbolism used by Christians is based in part on trees and forests. 23. The symbolism used by Christians is based in part on trees and forests. 24. Old, severed writers who have written about the care of trees and forests.
CHAPTER THREE 1. Making a natural study of trees is difficult. What should be taken into account. 2. The nutrient uptake and growth of trees are not things that man could comprehend. We can only marvel at them. But why. 3. This study in the light of certain unbelievable examples. The spirit of life and phlogiston in the soil. 4. No plant family, not to speak of trees or bushes, can be destroyed completely. 5. Further thoughts on the same subject. Did the Flood destroy some tree species. 6. General description of plants and trees. 7. The parts of trees and tree species. 8. "Causa materialis", the creation and development of life forms. 9. "Causa formalis", the divergence of life forms. 10. The final reason for the existence of trees (Endursache). 11. The division of trees into domesticated and wild forms. 12. Which wild trees grow in this country. 13. The division of wild trees into fast and slow-growing forms. A list of the former species. Soil and other preconditions associated with fast-growing trees. 14. The advantages of wild trees over domesticated ones. The apology of man's sloth to utilize this. 15. The second division which groups wild trees into fruitbearing trees and others. 16. The third division. The classification of wild trees into seasonally green and evergreen species. The reasons for such differences. 17. Examples of evergreen, deciduous trees. 18. Why evergreen trees are more resistant than others. 19. The division of trees into males and females. What it is based on. 20. The division of trees into domestic and exotic species. How different species are suited for planting. 21. The genetics and genera of trees. The effect of small seed size on this aspect. The dependence of the genetic characteristics of trees on seeds. 22. Why good fruit trees have to be regenerated from sprouts. 23. Where roots get their "aliment" from. Why dead soil damages roots. How the bark benefits roots. 24. The opinions of some naturalists about pruning the roots in connection with moving trees. How a tree can obtain sufficient nutrients with so few roots. 25. An examination of root pruning. 26. How a slender seedling is able to germinate in hard and heavy soil. 27. The way in which a tree obtains its sap. 28. Twisted and knobbly trees. 29. The sap of trees, its effects and different qualities. 30. The liquids and salts characteristic of trees can be recognised from the woodsmoke. 31. The effect of the sap of trees on their fruits and flowers. 32. Does the sap also function during the winter. 33. Which parts of a tree have the most sap. 34. Trees have different kinds of tubes and veins, through which the sap rises and falls. More about pores and how they serve trees. 35. Tree bark. 36. Tree leaves and their great differences. 37. The time at which trees really shed their leaves. Why the leaves of oak withstand frost better in the autumn than in the spring. 38. The green of tree leaves looks good to the eye. 39. Do trees defecate. 40. The four age phases of trees. 41. Which trees grow old first. 42. How long can a tree grow and stand. Comments about the hardness of the wood of very old trees. 43. Can the age of white fir, Norway spruce and Scots pine be told from their annual growth. 44. Identifying the north side of trees from their growth. Compass trees. 45. The significance of buds formed in the autumn. Why trees which have produced a lot of fruit do not bear as much fruit the following year. 46. Roots help the tree to remain upright and survive. 47. The connection between the shape and the ash and salts of trees. 48. Application of the Laws of Nature to tree observations and their usefulness. 49. Study of the properties of nature is very beneficial for human relations.
CHAPTER FOUR 1. How the German forests of today compare to those of the past. 2. The endless forests of America. 3. The reasons for the above. Great forests in "Moscovia" and Scandinavia. 4. What factors in Germany and the surrounding countries cause the wood shortage, and how detrimental it is. 5., 6. The threat of a wood shortage must not be underestimated. 7. The wood shortage in our countries and other metallurgical countries is much more serious than in ship-building countries. 8. The causes of the wood shortage. 9. A great number of large buildings which are essential. 10. Animal husbandry that has become established in our country. 11. Unnecessarily large cottages. The Hamburg tiled-oven invention. 12. The wasteful use of firewood for the kitchen. One invention in this respect. 13. The fifth reason, iron stoves. The advantages of tiled ovens over iron stoves. 14. The sixth and most marked reason, the rejection of curved wood, the use of straight, sound stems, and high ovens. 15. The seventh reason, the neglection of planting and sowing. The importance of Divine Law. 16. The future looks threatening. 17. Another evidence of the wood shortage. Its reflection in the production of resin. 18., 19 Further evidence for the wood shortage and ensuing panic, especially in mountainous districts. 20. Thoughts about why there are so many different kinds of animal, tree and plant in all the four continents, but only the same kinds of metal. The consequences of the wood shortage in the Meissen area and the conclusion to be drawn.
CHAPTER FIVE 1. The connection with the previous chapter. 2. The many ways in which forests can be damaged. 3. Wind. Why the bad winter winds cause greater damage to trees than the stormy winds of summer. 4. Snow. 5. Whirlwinds and terrible winds. 6. The time at which they cause the most damage. 7. Observations on breakages and windthrow in virgin forests. 8. Additional observations about seeds which germinate in piles of windthrown rotten timber. Will future generations ever see such damage. 9. Years of drought and how trees die during them. 10. How trees freeze during the winter. What should be done. Late frost in the spring. 11. Thunderstorms, hail and other meteors which damage trees. Smog and freezing fog. How fruit trees can be protected from them. 12. Damage caused by the soil to trees. Wet years. 13. Which animal pests damage trees. Caterpillars. Observations about them as pests of conifers. Beetles and grasshoppers. 14. An old rule about what should be done with respect to larvae. 15. Larvae and their reproduction. 16. Damage which wild game cause to young trees. 17. The instructions issued by the authorities in this respect. 18. Damage to trees caused by game. An example. Which species cause damage and to which tree species. The damage caused by domesticated animals. The bite of a goat is very damaging to trees. 19. When young cattle can be taken to pasture in cutover areas without the risk of damage. 20. A means of preventing damage caused by cattle and wild animals. 21. The diseases of trees and their symptoms. A description of them. 22. What is scorching (Brand). The causes. 23. What is canker (Krebs). 24. What is worm (Wurm). 25. What is wart disease (Raude). 26. What is yellow malady (Gelbe Sucht) in a tree. 27. Damage to the pith of young trees. How to recognise it. Its causes. 28. The movement of sap in trees. Worms in roots. Desiccating winds and swamplike moisture in the soil. 29. Forest plague, which is called drying disease. The damage it causes. What it is caused by. 30. All sorts of natural phenomena which cause the death of trees. 31. Means available for use against plague in trees and comments on them. How to fight them. 32. Has nature caused these diseases. 33. How moss damages trees. What can be done. Compass trees. How to help partially uprooted deciduous trees. 34. Damage caused by man to stands. A good joinery tree can be spoiled by merely one cut with a knife. 35. Damage to the bast and bark and the causal agents. 36. Basketmakers and coopers, mushroom collectors, hop-pole cutters, fowlers and shepherds and other damagers of trees. 37. The premature felling of young stands. Stem banging and bruising. 38. Is the collection of moss and humus beneficial for the forest. 39. How trees are damaged by tapping resin. An experiment on this topic. Certain types of tree are not suitable for charcoal, firewood or building timber. How wood can be hewn. 40. Forest fires caused by the hand of man, and the great damage they cause. 41. How fire can be put out. Is it sufficient help. An example of burning. 42. Clearing forest for fields and pasture. 43. Is such a practice beneficial to farming. 44. The incorrect selection of trees to be felled. How much a tree grows in girth and height in a year. Premature felling of young trees and the threat posed by such a measure. Essential measures against such a disastrous practice.
CHAPTER SIX 1. Forests are an irreplaceable treasure for the whole country. It sets an obligation on everybody, from the highest to the lowest. 2. Even God urges us to protect the forest. 3. Cicero's concept of overexploitation of forests. 4. The Roman right to punish those who destroy forest. 5. Legislation of Charles V concerning the organization of forestry. 6. Examples of how the great rulers and generals have gone to great lengths to protect the forest, even amidst the turmoil of war. The old concept of a devastater of the forest. 7. Forest laws in Spain, Venice, England and France. 8. The opinions of Louis XIV, the present king of France, about forests. 9. English and Dutch industry which utilize the forest. 10. The Old Germans looked after their forests well. Wood and forest authorities. 11. State regulations concerning the number of chimneys. Knowledge about conservation. 12. The reasons why and how the forests are looked after in important metallurgical countries especially. 13. The rulers in these countries have developed practical and forest-conservation legislation. It also affects the wood trade. 14. Mr. von Seckendoiff's ideas about logging and selling trees. The reason why the middle tree storey is to be saved. 15. A princely ordinance about when forest is to be felled. 16. The care taken by the Old Germans to protect forests. Forest legislation concerning this matter.
CHAPTER SEVEN 1. Is there any reason to fear a great shortage of wood in Germany. 2. Luther's and Melancton's, as well as Mathew's, predictions about it. 3. A claim that there is such a threat, with all the accompanying misery. 4. The neglectance of forest regeneration is a great mistake and harmful to the whole economy. The cause of such a mistake. 5. The country and principality where forests grow are happy. Wood is especially essential in the northern, cold countries. 6. State measures which aim at increasing the treasure and incomes of the country. 7. The benefits of such systems and how they make a country stronger and more productive than its competitors. 8. What is our sustainable economic system based on, especially in Meissen in Ertzgebirge. 9. Is the metallurgical industry operating in Meissen, Ertzgebirge, to be considered only as a devastater of the forests. 10. The great benefit which the metallurgical industry also brings to trade and the handicraft industry. What other benefit is wood. 11. The Meissen metallurgical industry cannot run on nothing. 12. This is why the forests have to be managed well. In the same way as has been done earlier in many principalities. 13. Keeping the forests fully stocked can only succeed in the Meissen area through the help of sowing and planting. What is the reason for this. 14. An example of the great harm the farmer does himself if he clears forest in the mountains for fields -the forests which provide him with considerable benefit each year. 15. Why it was advantageous to clear forest for fields after the Great German War. What has to be done in the present situation, and how future generations will benefit from it. 16. Are the costs invested in sowing and planting forests wasted. 17. A calculation about how much wood can be grown on a given area of land if abandoned fields with insufficient seedlings or uninhabited land are afforested. 18. Another example of the benefits of sowing and planting. 19. The divine command concerning this, and the viability of such a measure. 20. Why there must be no negligence or a decision put off in these matters. 21. The author's suggestion about what is the best way to do it. 22. The benefits promised to all by this proposition. 23. An example which should encourage both employers and employees. 24. Still more information about how sowing and planting can benefit the whole country 25. An indication of how sowing and planting forest succeeds well in our country 26. The duty of the local inhabitants in this respect. 27. The poor condition of forestless areas. 28. Can such land be afforested through sowing or planting.
CHAPTER EIGHT The efforts of past generations and other
nations in the sowing and planting of forest, and the
science which has 1. Should we always do the same as the generations gone by. 2., 3. Do we have to wait for the forest to regenerate itself, as our fore-fathers have done. 4. The sowing of tree seed is nothing new 5. A story about peoples in Europe amongst whom tree sowing and planting is common. 6. The same types of people in different parts of Asia, 7. In America, 8. In Africa, and 9. In colonies in Mrica. 10. Kaiser Henrik VII's two edicts of 1309 and 1310 concerning the re-establishment of forests in depopulated regions. 11. The arrangements made by Prince August and other electors of Saxony for sowing and planting forest. 12. The Coda of Duke Georg-Friedrich of Saxony from 1695. 13. Why the sowing and planting of forest is still neglected in our country 14. The forest statutes of Charles V in Spain. 15. The statutes of Braunschweig and Hessen concerning forest sowing and planting. 16. Royal statutes of France from 1669. 17. The forest statutes of Luneburg, Bavaria and other corresponding districts. 18. Proof that forestry does not consider tree sowing or planting difficult. However, it has to be improved. 19. Books where these matters are presented. 20. The reasons why our forefathers have not left their mark to any noticeable degree in these matters. 21. Is forest cultivation easier than cultivating fields.
CHAPTER NINE 1. The start of every tree lies in a seed. 2. What climate means for every tree. 3. Which trees are most easily regenerated from seed. 4. The reflection of divine wisdom and might in a seed. 5. The amount of seed produced by wild trees. An indication that nature sows seed more favourably than man. 6. The difficulties of sowing, and overcoming them. 7. The care taken by nature in protecting seed. The different coats and contents of seeds. 8. The reasons for this carefulness. 9. The care taken by nature in broadcasting seed. The wings of seeds and their suitability for spreading seed. The properties of white fir seed fir in particular, and their ability to fly. 10. Why trees do not produce seed every year, or produce only a few. A general rule about how the phases of the moon affect flowering. 11. Retaining the germination capacity of wild tree seed. 12. How durability can be improved and maintained. 13. Forest animals that eat and damage seeds. 14. Insects and worms that live in seeds. An observation of such. When seed should be sown. 15. The "balsamo innato" of seed, and how germination takes place. 16. Do aspen and willow produce seed at all, and how they reproduce.
CHAPTER TEN 1. God and nature demands that we should sow and plant wild trees. The benefits of such work. 2. Seed trees have to be left standing in every cutting area. They are of great benefit in the reforestation of extensive areas. 3. How to choose such trees. Why, in the case of conifers, large-sized and old trees should not be chosen as seed trees, and what are the reasons why woodcutters want to leave such trees. More about the selection of seed trees. 4. What features should be taken into account when selecting hardwood seed trees. 5. What sort of gaps should be left between seed trees. How long does it take for a new seedling stand and small trees to develop. 6. The most suitable sites for seed trees. 7. How natural sowing can be assisted. Why seedling material soon disappears from sites where cattle are grazed. The most favourable regeneration time. 8. The best time for collecting seed. 9. Signs which indicate that the seeds of wild trees are ripe. The water test. 10. How can the ripeness of a seed be estimated from its colour or otherwise known. How can the time of year also be utilized for such determination. 11. The importance of carefulness in seed collection. 12. How should seed be stored so that it does not spoil. Observations on the storability of coniferous seed. 13. What is to be done if there is inferior seed amongst good seed. 14. The collection of coniferous seed and about whether the sowing of conifers is practical. Observations about the flowering and cones of silver fir and spruce, and the seed obtainable from them. 15. When and how coniferous seed is shed. 16. How its maturity is tested and when it is sown. 17. The different ways in which coniferous seed can be collected. 18. How cones are dried and seed extracted from cones. 19. How seed should be looked for and how it is checked. 20. Above all the date has to be checked. The seed of trees is exported from Germany and Switzerland.
CHAPTER ELEVEN 1. Differences in soil in general, and in detail with regard to the cultivation of trees. 2. There are few soils where trees cannot be grown. The author's list of such soils. 3. Why trees do not grow in the Alps and in other high places. 4. Soil can be made more suitable for vegetation through hard work and knowledge. 5. Every farmer should know the sites on his land where trees can be grown to his advantage. 6. And also which trees thrive on his land. The reasons why hardwoods drive out any conifers growing among them. The importance of such knowledge. 7. Rotten wood soil. What it is and how it is formed. 8. Dead soil. What it is, how it exerts an effect, and how it can be cured. 9. The soil quality can be seen from the vegetation and the forest. The opinions of a Portugese on this matter. 10. How to test whether the soil is suitable. 11. What sort of soil is unsuitable and difficult for growing trees. 12. What sort of soil is, on the other hand, suitable. 13. What sort of soil is of good quality. What should be examined in this respect. 14. The suitability of soil in the Meissen area for forest cultivation. 15. How unusable and difficult land can be improved. Wetlands. How they can be used. 16. How dry, sandy and gravelly soil can be improved. How nature can help in such work. 17. How dead soil, and soil which is too compacted or clayey can be improved. 18. The manuring of land and the use of bracken in such work. 19. The help which ploughing and hoeing provide. 20. How to know which tree species thrive best on which type of soil. 21. What else has to be taken into account in this respect. 22. What should be done if the soil quality cannot be identified. 23. What is the special significance of air and climate. 24. The importance of the personal characteristics of the farmer for the success of the trees. 25. Land which, owing to its age, is unusable. Land which has lost its natural state.
CHAPTER TWELVE 1. How soil should be prepared in places where there are many seed trees. Ploughing and hoeing. 2. What should be taken into account as regards conifers. 3. How it should be done on extensive, stony and rocky soils. Should coniferous seed be covered by harrowing. 4. Completely impoverished soil. 5. Why young stands do not develop on compacted and clayey soils, and what can be done about it. 6. Black-sand soil. 7. What should be taken into account when ploughing and turning soil. 8. How good and fruitful soil should be used. The benefit obtained from furrowing. 9. Another use of furrowing. What should be done if tree seed is to be spread on land already sown with corn. 10. What else should be taken into account in furrowing. Its later benefits. 11. What can be done if furrowing cannot be used. 12. How soil preparation is done at the lowest costs. 13. How much land should be reserved on each farm for growing forest. 14. Does agricultural or forest land produce better trees. 15. The sowing and planting of forest trees are learnt mainly through practical work. 16. What varying factors should be taken into account in this work, and is it possible to give rules applicable to all conditions. 17. The season and weather have to be taken into account over all other aspects when sowing. 18. The main rule concerning the sowing time. 19. Autumn and spring sowing and the conditions in which one or the other is better. 20. The sowing time for conifers. 21. Acorns and beech mast. 22. Nuts and wild fruit. 23. The reasons why autumn sowing is best. Corn and acorns are sown at the same time in the Luneberg area. 24. The phase of the waxing moon is still to be taken into account when choosing the sowing time. 25. The most favourable sowing weather. 26. Further proof of the fact that the hand of man broadcasts seed better than nature itself. 27. How to go about regenerating very large, clear-cutting areas and extensive wasteland. 28. Should only one tree species or a mixture of a few be sown. 29. Which trees should be cultivated the most in the case in hand, and how to make the best species productive at the lowest costs. 30. Where sowing is the cheapest and where planting. 31. How much seed is needed for one acre. 32. What are the reasons why sowing should preferably be dense rather than sparse. 33. What should be taken into account in this respect as regards conifers. 34. How to ensure that far too much seed is not sown, and how to cover it with soil. 35. What should be done to make seed softer and germinate before sowing. 36. Testing the viability of seed before sowing. 37. Seed should not be allowed to become too dry. 38. How seed is sown accidentally. 39. What should be done after the seed has been put in the ground. 40. How the seed should be assisted following germination. 41. How seedling material should be protected against drought and heat. 42. What are the reasons why the seed does not perhaps germinate at all or only germinates slowly. What can be done to promote germination. 43. The acceptability of seedling material. 44. What can damage the seedling material, and what can be done to prevent it. 45. What experience shows can be done in the worst cases. 46. Why a hardwood stand develops by itself on a site where a coniferous stand has been clear cut. 47. What sort of characteristics should a good forest grower have. 48. A summary of what should be taken into account when sowing trees. Also what is the purpose of such work and what are its benefits. 49. A new call for a real start on cultivating forest trees.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN 1. What is a naturally regenerated stand (Anflug) and a coppice (Wiederwuchs). 2. The great shortage of young stands covers the whole country, and the reasons for this situation. 3. It is everybody's duty to help to overcome this shortage. 4. Why nothing grows in areas where forest fires have raged. Measures for correcting the situation. 5. Could we expect regeneration to take place by itself, or 6. Perhaps from seed trees. 7. The advantages of an artificially established seedling stand com-pared to a naturally regenerated one. Their charm, order, practicality and benefit, especially for forest roads. 8. Where regeneration is the most successful. Does it succeed in fully-stocked stands or under a residual stand. 9. How the cutting of holdovers should be located with regeneration in mind, and how it should be distributed areally. 10. Which tree species in the regeneration process are preferred in accordance with the possibilities. The benefits of chestnut forests. 11. Preparation of the soil surface for regeneration. 12. Making sure that the grazing of cattle does not trample the young stand or prevent it growing. 13. How young stands are subsequently managed. 14. Man's sloth. The fate of the cedars of Lebanon as an example. 15. A call for greater diligence. 16. When a coppiced stand should be cut. 17. A call to start sowing forest before it is absolutely necessary. 18. The planting of forests from cuttings, root sprouts and root segments.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN 1. What are an overstorey and an understorey, and why an understorey is grown. 2. Why an overstorey is grown and which trees are selected for such a storey. 3. How is an overstorey grown. 4. How many overstorey trees and other trees can be grown on one acre. 5. The reasons why it is not possible on our soils to sow corn neither below nor between an overstorey of trees. 6. How an acre is best divided between the overstorey and understorey tree stands. 7. What should be taken into account when growing overstorey trees. 8. What tree species is usually suitable for an understorey stand and what is to be done towards regenerating it in different conditions. 9. How an overstorey stand can be grown in addition to an understorey stand. A French guide for this. 10. Is an understorey tree more favourable than an overstorey tree. Pruning the trees in the overstorey favours the understorey stand. Does the vitality of the understorey stand decrease as the stumps age. 11. The benefits of an understorey stand in grass growing and in pasturing. 12. Other advantages of an understorey stand as regards its regeneration and the grazing of cattle. 13. Larvae and beetles damage the understorey stand, and what is to be taken into account in such a case. 14. How old should an understorey stand be before cutting. 15. Can good building timber be grown from the stump sprouts of a felled trunk. 16. What is the best felling time and when should a felled tree be removed from the forest taking into account the benefit obtained from it in cattle grazing. 17. What else should be taken into account when felling coppices. 18. How an area cleared of coppice forest can be used for agricultural purposes.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN 1. Establishing nurseries for wild trees is by no means a new idea. 2. In addition, it is very beneficial for the district. The author's proposals about what the government could dictate in this matter. 3. What sort of soil should there be in the nursery 4. How it is treated and prepared. 5. How and at what time should sowing be done. 6. Why it is preferable to sow densely rather than sparsely. What else should be done in this connection. 7. How should germinated seeds and seedlings be handled. 8. Can many types of different seed be sown as a mixture. 9. What should be taken into account when planting hardwoods. Similarly, what is to be done at the nursery when the seedlings are lifted. 10. The great benefit of nurseries and where they are needed. 11. The author's proposals.
CHAPTER SIXTEEN 1. What benefit do foreigners get from planting trees, and how the Italians obtain doweries for their daughters in this way. 2. Different ways of regenerating and planting trees. 3. How young trees should be lifted and how the date and other factors should be taken into account. 4. Why it is better to plant seedlings grown from seed than sprouts and cuttings. 5. Where such seedlings can be obtained and how high the costs may be. 6. Conifers are not very suited to planting. 7. How high and what the trees should otherwise be like when planting. 8. What is the best planting time. 9. Is the spring a suitable time for planting and what has to be taken into account at that time. 10. The roots and bark should be carefully protected when lifting seedlings. 11. The soil to be left around the roots. 12. What should be cut away from trees to be planted. Should the taproot be left. 13. How conifers are planted and what is the benefit of shaping hardwoods. 14. How the cutting surface should be treated and how and with what tool is the cutting done. 15. More studies on why the taproot must not be left uncut in planting. 16. What is to be done for small trees when they are lifted. Taking into account the direction in which the tree is growing. 17. How large should a tree to be planted be. Is it better to plant trees in individual pits or furrows, and at what sort of spacing. 18. Why the planting pits should be left open for some time, and how they should be otherwise conditioned. 19. The pits should be large and roomy, especially in silt and clay soil, but dead soil should not be put next to the roots. 20. How seedlings and their roots are aligned in the pits or furrows, and how deep they should be planted. 21. What should be put under and over the roots, and what the pits and furrows should be filed with. Sawdust. 22. Manuring. Why the root should be covered with compact soil. 23. How the trees should otherwise be arranged and also how compact the soil should be. 24. Another explanation about how deep a tree should be planted depending on the quality of the soil. 25. How far away from each other should the trees be. 26. How young trees should be supported in order to withstand the wind. 27. How old trees can be when planted. 28. How sprout seedlings are planted. 29. The watering and manuring of planted trees. 30. The replanting of trees, and its practicability in the case of forest trees. 31. Signs that planted conifers have rooted. 32. What are the advantages of sown and planted trees over each other. 33. What aspects of the soil should be taken into account in planting.
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN 1., 2. Is the planting of exotic trees in different soil both unnecessary and idle activity. 3. An indication that this work has practical significance and that trees brought from warm climates can thrive in colder countries. 4. The Aloe as an example. Description of an individual growing in Leipzig. 5. The benefits to be gained from transferring such trees. 6. The benefits of the "Reusch tree". 7. Cotton bushes. 8. Cedar trees. Its genus and great value. 9. Its wasteful use and the reasons why they are only a few remnants of it left. 10. The Siberian cedar. 11. The lemon tree and its occurrence in Italy and other countries. The use of lemon and other related fruits in Crayn. 12. A description of the cypress. The reason why it is used in funerals and in connection with cremations. The Persian cypress and how it is planted here. 13. The ebony tree and where it grows. Why the Moors carved their idols from it. How the wood is seasoned. The ebony tree fossils. 14. The fig tree and where it really grows. Its different genera. 15. The terpentine tree and the "Kellers-Hals" medicine tree. 16. A description of the Mastix tree. 17. The nutmeg tree. 18. The Pistachio. 19. The names and genera of palm trees. 20. The palm tree as a calendar. 21. The fruits of palms and their usefulness. 22. A description of masculine and female individuals of palms and their significant interaction. 23. A description of oil trees, their longevity and arrival in Italy. 24. The peach tree, wild pumper nut trees and the seven tree. 25. The Tamarisk tree and other special trees. 26. More proof that useful trees can be grown even in foreign conditions. Difficulties in such matters. 27. Useful Indian trees can also be planted in Europe. 28. Fruit trees from foreign countries which the Romans brought to Italy, and a few such curiosities. 29. Different lemon trees planted in Europe. Chinese apple trees which the Portugese brought home. 30. Which exotic fruit trees have been grown in Germany as a great benefit for the country. 31. Why more transfers to Germany have not been done. An analysis of the reasons. 32. The author's proposal for the transfer of exotic trees to Germany. 33. Wild trees from India. 34. How exotic plants can be made to thrive in cold countries.
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 1. The "Old Germans" already knew about forestry. 2. How young seedlings should be looked after. 3. The manuring of individual trees and even forests. 4. The removal of the sprouts of young trees and the pruning of branches. What is the benefit of this. 5. How high, when and how many branches can be pruned. 6. Epicormic branches and harmful ramicorns. What tools are to be used in pruning. 7. How a tree can be made to develop a good trunk. 8. Also that good roof shingles and building boards are obtainable from the trunk. 9. How branches are cut from the tree. 10. How seed trees are grown. 11. What would be the most suitable time of year for removing branches from trees. 12. How harmful moss is removed from trees. 13. How a tree is made to grow as thick-trunked as possible. 14. Larval damage. 15. How to make a tree produce fruit. How to protect a fruit tree against cold and ants. 16. What to do if a tree starts to degenerate. 17. In what conditions can the above guidelines be applied.
PART II CHAPTER ONE 1. The main division into domesticated and wild trees. How one is more beneficial than the other. 2. The division of wild trees into conifers (or resin trees) and deciduous trees. 3. The different species of conifer and which of them grow in Saxony. 4. An observation about how the cruel winter frost does not damage conifers, but hoarfrost and spring frost damage their shoots. 5. Which conifers bear the most seeds. 6. The usefulness of conifers in general. 7. How conifers should be cultivated. The reasons why cones open and shut in turn. Microscopical observations on coniferous seed. 8. A guide concerning the preparation of the soil surface, and the correct sowing time. 9. The transfer of coniferous seedlings. 10. Where silver fir grows the best and what sort of tree thrives next to it. 11. The differences between silver fir, Norway spruce and Scots pine. 12. "Hard" and "soft" conifers. The latter do not develop stump sprouts after felling. 13. The names of silver fir. 14. Silver fir also grows in America. Its properties, main root, bark, needles, branches and wood. 15. The trunk and seed of silver fir. Mistletoe and where it develops from. 16. The soil most suitable for silver fir, and to whom it is dedicated. 17. Where silver fir can be used. 18. Differences between the Pinus and Pinaster families. A description of Pinus (or "domesticated" pine). 19. A description of our wild pine Pinaster and its properties. Why Augsburg has chosen pine cones for its coat of arms. 20. The properties of pine wood and where it is used. Tar and the reasons why this wood cannot be used for water pipes. 21. The seed of this tree species and the reasons why this tree is especially suitable for ship masts. 22. A description of spruce. Its cones and seeds. 23. Resin tapping and resin boiling. Its abuse. What ants and wild boar use resin for. 24. Where spruce grows the best. To whom it is dedicated. The usefulness of its branches and wood. Chinese superstition. 25. A description of yew and where it is to be found in Germany. 26. A description of "Tar tree". 27. A description of larch. Its agarics. Does its wood burn and can it be used for making charcoal. 28. Where this tree species grows. Its planting is not easy. 29. There are two types of juniper. Are they perhaps only the masculine and female forms of juniper. 30. The flowering of juniper, and the usefulness of its wood and charcoal-making.
CHAPTER TWO 1. The superiority of deciduous trees compared to conifers. Which of the two groups provides the most benefit. 2. The definition of "hard" and "soft" deciduous trees. 3. What kind of tree is most suitable for sawtimber. 4. Oak grows almost everywhere in the world and provides the people living in some areas with their whole livelihood. 5. The species of oak. Do different oak trees also develop from the acorns of different species of oak. 6. Acorns and beech mast. When they are ripe. How they are prepared for sowing and pushing into the soil. 7. The different forms of oak leaf. 8. The kind of soil which oaks like, and when the trunk which develops is straight or branchy. 9. Oak is an enemy of grass and corn. The roots of oak and their great strength. 10. The age of oaks. Example of this. 11. The usefulness of oak for gallnuts (Galllipffeln). Can their fertility be promoted. 12. The usefulness of acorns. Use as a substitute for sweets and bread. 13. The red dye and "Confectio Alkermes" obtainable from oak. 14. Mistletoe which grows on oak, and its usefulness. 15. The honey which bees collect from oaks. 16. "Oak grapes" (Uva quercina) that grow on the roots of oak, and pears grafted on oak stems. 17. The longevity of oak wood and the extent to which it can be used for building purposes. 18. The usefulness of oak dyeing. Is oak suitable for coppicing. The shade provided by oak and when it is advantageous. 19. Telling fortunes by means of the gallnuts growing on oak. 20. The respect shown by the Old Germans for oaks, and especially the mistletoe growing on them. Their use in religious ceremonies. How bird lime (vogel-Leim) is prepared. 21. The respect held for oak in secular matters. The cross of Christ. 22. The oil tree and walnut do not thrive near to oaks. The antipathy between these trees. 23. Beech and its pleasant shade. 24. Three different species of beech. 25. Soil suitable for beech, its planting and sprout regeneration, and mast and flowering. 26. Beech mast and its usefulness. 27. Utensils which can be made from beech wood. 28. Beech bark is useful for writing purposes. 29. The properties of beech wood. Where it is suitable, and where not. 30. Beech is suitable for coppicing. It provides good firewood and also good pot ash. 31. Letters which have been written on beech veneer. The use of beech in Constantinople. The history of beech. 32. Hornbeam, its seed, trunk and cultivation. 33. Sweet chestnut. The countries it grows in. Could it thrive here. Its names. 34. The sort of soil it likes. 35. Its bark, wood and growth. 36. Its fruit, wood and how it is cultivated. 37. Sweet chestnut provides the best coppice wood and other types of wood. Sweet chestnut can also be used for bread and is especially pleasing to the mind. 38. The reasons why walnut is included in this list. The reason why its name is Juglans (Oak killer). 39. How it can be protected from frost. 40. How it can be sown and planted. Is grafting of use in its reproduction. What sort of soil it demands. 41. Its shade is very harmful. Its wood is highly prized. A symbol concerning it.
CHAPTER THREE 1. All good species of fruit tree have also been wild at some time, but have been transplanted owing to their good fruit. Wild apple trees and where they grow especially. 2. How a wild fruit tree is transplanted, and subsequently looked after. Its great usefulness. 3. The properties of the wood of such trees. Wild fruit trees are especially prized in France and England. Wild apple trees. 4. How the cherry tree has come to Europe. 5. Cherries are the first fruit to ripen each year. Ml the species of wild cherry. The usefulness of the black cherry tree. 6. How its crown spreads out. The uses of its wood. 7. The properties of wild plum trees. How they are cultivated. What is their wood used for. 8. The climate suitable for mulberry trees and the usefulness of this tree. 9. Can the cultivation of silkworms be practiced in Germany (Teutschland). 10. How mulberry is cultivated. What can be used for feeding silkworms in Germany (Teutschland) instead of mulberry leaves. 11. What is the reason why mulberry is considered to be the wisest of trees. Great mulberry forests in China. 12. Why the "mispel" tree is considered to be a wild tree. Its shape, and suitable climate, soil and cultivation technique. 13. The different species of rowan. A description of the Arles cherry tree. 14. Soil suitable for rowan, and the cultivation of rowan. 15. Its utilization. 16. The names of elder, its bark and usefulness.
CHAPTER FOUR 1. Linden. The collection and sowing of linden seed. 2. A description of linden. 3. The male and female forms of linden. 4. The sort of soil which linden prefers. Its stem and branches. 5. The usefulness of linden bast. 6. The flowering of linden. 7. The wood, mistletoe and bracket fungi of linden. 8. Can linden be used as both an overstorey and understorey tree. 9. What tree species can be grafted onto linden. The god to which linden is dedicated to for this reason. 10. The age of linden. Forest lindens. 11. Maple. Its names and a description of it. How it has come to Italy. 12. The two species of maple. Soil suitable for maple. 13. Its height and marvellous girth. 14. The respect shown by the "Old Germans" towards maple. 15. Its excellent wood. 16. The use of its leaves as fodder for cattle and an ameliorating agent. Its usefulness for medicine. 17. How maple should be looked after and cultivated. 18. Its leaves, flowers, fruit and seed, as well as its - 19. Age. 20. Birch, its climate, soil and growth. 21. It is also suitable as an overstorey and understorey tree. 22.and 23. Its bark, leaves and splitability. 24. Birch sap. 25. Birch seed. When it is ripe. How it is collected. 26. Planting birch. 27. Ash and soil suitable for ash. 28. Its good growth. 29. The use and usefulness of its wood, especially for medicines. 30. Its effectiveness against poisons and snake bites, and also for stemming blood flow. 31. Its leaves, flowers and seed. When and where it is cultivated. 32. How benefit is gained from it in other countries. 33. Species of alder, their names, genera and soil. 34. The benefit to be gained from common alder on wet forest land and shorelines. 35. The durability of the wood of common alder in underwater constructions. 36. Other benefit to be gained from common alder, especially as fodder for cattle. 37. The cultivation of common alder and its seed. 38. How alder can be exterminated. It can be grown as hedges and used for making gunpowder horns. 39. Elm, its species and soil suitable for it. 40. The uses of its wood and leaves. 41. How it is cultivated. 42. The "flax tree" (Leinbaum). 43. Large-leaved elm. Its genera, seed and leaves. 44. The wood of large-leaved elm and how it differs from ordinary elm. 45. A description of Acacia and its utilization.
CHAPTER FIVE 1. The great number of genera of willow. 2. The benefit to be obtained from them. 3. Flowering and the possible types of willow seed. 4. Willow harvesting. 5. The utilization of willows in underwater constructions and as firewood. 6. The use of willows in weaving and binding. Their leaves as an ameliorative agent. 7. At what scale should willow be planted. How large the cuttings should be in willow cultivation. 8. Crack willow and where it is used. 9. Goat willow and basket willow. 10. A description of white poplar. 11. A description of black poplar "Unguentum populeum". 12. Soil suitable for poplars, their growth and utilization. 13. How poplars are cultivated. 14. The names of different species of aspen and the soil suitable for them. 15. What the wood of aspens is suitable for and what not. 16. The longevity of aspens. Their cones and cultivation.
CHAPTER SIX 1. Walnut and soil suitable for it. Its flowering. The use of its wood. Its hidden power. 2. The reasons why "quick flames" (Luft-Feuer) are prevented using walnut branches. 3. How hazelnut is cultivated. Its age. 4. How strong the trunk of box grows. 5. What it is used for. 6. A description of cornelian cherry. 7. Its flowering and fruit. 8. Its name and usefulness. 9. The fruit and genera of blackthorn. 10. The antipathy between hawthorn and blackthorn. How blackthorn is grown. 11. Wild rose. The many species of rose. Where the saying: "Sub rosa" comes from. The riddle of the wild rose. 12. The wood of birdcherry, where it is used, where and how it is useful. Its fruit. 13. Ivy and its two species. Their flowering and fruit. 14. Ivy with a thick trunk is growing in the principality of Crayn. What ivy is used for. 15. A description of buckthorn. 16. A description of the European spindle tree. How it is useful or harmful. 17. The wild olive tree, and also the Dracaena palm.
CHAPTER SEVEN 1. The usefulness of wood at the start and end of life. 2. The usefulness of trees for mankind in general, and especially in building work. 3. The use of wood for utensils required in religious ceremonies and in the household. The reasons why people in the East sit on the ground and can eat only one hot meal a day. 4. The usefulness of trees in food preparation and especially in the baking of bread 5. Beer brewing and wine making. 6. Bread from trees. 7. Wood as an essential shield against cold. The Chinese consider that wood is the fifth element. Their concept of the elements. 8. Most handtools cannot be made without wood. 9. The usefulness of wood in dyeing and agriculture. 10. The significance of wood for travelling, the fur industry, road construction and the harnessing of rivers and streams - 11. Strengthening shores and the protection of soil and roads. 12. The indispensability of wood in the smelting industry, especially in the manufacture of tin and other metals - 13. In the production of salt and iron. 14. How money grows in trees. The forests are completely indispensable for densely populated countries. An important calculation concerning this. 15. A fully-stocked forest is a good nest-egg for the farmer. 16. The boundless usefulness of wood in sailing the seas and other waters. 17. The whole of mankind was saved from drowning by wood and, in addition, it helped to discover a whole new world. 18. The indescribably large riches that have been accumulated through navigation. 19. The usefulness of wood for fishermen. 20. Wood was present when the whole of mankind was redeemed. The words written on the Cross of Christ are preserved in Rome. 21. The usefulness of the forests as a seat of wild game. 22. The forests as a beautiful environment for the song of birds. 23. The significance of forests in the cultivation of silkworms and in the manufacture of all kinds of materials such as sacks, mattresses and letters. The origin of the names "Buch" (book) and "Blat" (leaf). 24. The skill of writing on wooden boards has also made printing possible. Chinese paper made from tree bark. Its differences compared to European. 25. Roadside stands provide a pleasant view also in mountainous areas. The same, long perspective views on straight roads. The advantages of straight roads. 26. The music and echo of the forests as a joy for the ear. 27. All that the forest offers us for food and drink. Cyther drink from wild fruits. The acorns and beech mast provide bread. 28. Are the forests today as frightening as during the days of the "Old Germans". 29. The forests are of great use during wartime. 30. Similarly when epidemics rage. 31. Divine wisdom can be felt in the forests. 32. How the forests provide sustenance for cattle. Our indebtedness to the forests.
CHAPTER EIGHT 1. The reasons why these topics are dealt with here. 2. Special rules about when and why a tree should, depending on its age, be felled so as to obtain the greatest possible return. 3. The best time to cut an understorey stand. What should be taken into account when the sap starts to rise in trees. 4. The reasons why an understorey stand should not be cut during a waning moon. 5. How short a stump should be left. When a sprout tree and small tree are to be felled in order to obtain durable timber. 6. Which tree species give the best firewood. Why bent and poor trees only are not removed, but instead clear-cutting is done. 7. How an area should be treated following cutting. 8. Why complete clear-cutting is done and not only individual trees felled. 9. The cutting of branches for fire-wood. The sorting of cut timber according to what it is best used for. 10. What sort of axes and men are chosen for woodcutting. 11. Cleaning the cutting area. 12. What damage ensues when timber is prepared using an axe alone. 13. The effect of the moon on the vegetation. Why building timber should only be felled during the waning moon. 14. The reasons why felling should be done at a time when the sap has not yet risen up the stems. What is the advantage of this. Would Fabian's Sebastian's day be the most favourable time for felling in all areas. 15. The age of trees to be felled. 16. How trees should be felled so that they are not damaged. 17. Is it advantageous to debark building timber before felling. 18. When a felled tree should be further treated, and how long it should be left lying on the ground. 19. How long a tree should be left to season. 20. It is beneficial to cut poles and staves from young thickets. What is the most durable wood. 21. The quality of a tree cannot be surmised until the trunk has been felled and cut.
CHAPTER NINE 1., 2. The bottom of a charcoal-burning pit and suitable soil. 3. The shape of the charcoal pit and how it is made. 4. How the soil is levelled off. 5. Charcoal nest and the banks surrounding it. 6. Lighting poles and lighting holes. 7. How the wood is stacked in a charcoal pit. 8.-11. How the layers are laid on top of each other. 12. Good firm ground is essential for a charcoal pit. 13.-14. How a charcoal pit is covered. 15. How a charcoal pit is tamped down - 16. And lit. 17.-24. How a charcoal pit is tended after being lit. 25.-26. What else should be taken into account in this work. 27.-31. How the burning is damped down or built up. 32. How the openings in charcoal pits are checked. 33.-35. What should be done when the fire has burnt down and the charcoal pit has finished burning. 36. How the ready charcoal is pushed out of the charcoal pit. 37. Another way of constructing a charcoal pit and firing it. 38. How charcoal-burning is done in the Meissen area and especially how the bottom of a charcoal pit and the wood to be burnt in it are arranged. 39. Covering, roofing and lighting. 40. How the fire is followed and how the ready charcoal is pushed out. 41. What should be taken into account when clearing the area from where the wood for charcoal-burning has been clear cut. 42. What sort of wood makes the best charcoal. 43. Why the charcoal pit has to be burnt slowly (mit guter Weile) and, when it has burnt to completion, should be extinguished rapidly. 44. What sort of charcoal is the best. 45. Wet weather is more favourable for charcoal-burning than dry. Good charcoal is obtained from half-dry wood. 46. The reasons why the charcoal pit should only be constructed on suitable land. 47. Why it is essential to use only high-quality charcoal in the metal-smelting industry and in smelting. The damage caused by charcoal which has been made from rotten or other poor-quality wood. 48. How rotten wood can be before it is no longer suitable for charcoal-making. 49. What should be done when making charcoal from dry wood. The reasons why half-dry wood makes the best charcoal. 50. More comments about charcoal pits and their location. 51. Gypsies are masters of the art of making good charcoal.
CHAPTER TEN 1. What is ash making. 2. The lighting of ash-making fires in hollow trees. 3. The maturity of trees suitable for making ash. 4. How many fires can an ashmaker look after at the same time. The skill of controlling the fire so that it does not spread. 5. Making ash from conifers in soil pits. 6. Potash. 7. Soot making.
CHAPTER ELEVEN 1. The study of nature is essential to know God and to maintain human life. 2. God's wisdom is especially evident in wild trees. 3. Why tree curiosities are beneficial for us. 4. Trees which, in place of springs, provide water for a whole island. 5. Trees which produce candle tallow. 6. Manna is collected from the Melezes tree. The other uses of this tree. 7. What is Manna. 8. Silk, wool and crustaceans also grow on trees. 9. Oysters which grow on trees. 10. The walnut tree which breaks into leaf and bears fruit only on mid-summer eve. 11. A fruit whose shape resembles the crucifix. 12. The beauty of Chinese paper made from wood. Ink from wood. Firewood from canes. 13. Trees whose shade and contact are poisonous to humans. 14. Fire cannot destroy the wood of larch. 15. A species of tree grows in Ireland in which worms cannot bore holes. It also keeps away spiders. The prince's palace in the Hague. 16. A tree, all the properties of which resemble iron. 17. A tree which develops a stony bark in water. 18. A tree in China produces a whole forest around it. 19. Trees whose branches hang down and roots point up. 20. Trees a thousand years old and more. 21. Underground trees. 22. The "marriage tree" and "beauty tree" in the park of the Schwalbach spa. 23. Important high and thick trees in Nicaragua especially. The Indians build their dwellings in these trees. 24. Ivy which has grown on the horns of a living stag. 25. A wild rose which has rooted in a man's body. 26. A tree which binds a horse to itself. 27. Trees whose crowns spray water. 28. Trees found under the ground. 29. Trees which grow underwater. Thoughts about the Flood and Paradise. The Scapo tree which grows in the River Euphrates. 30. A Majorana bush which two strong men cannot lift. It has developed from a single hawthom branch and has spread unbelievably. 31. Trees which, by drying out, have predicted the death of their planter. 32. The special features of the Bambo tree which grows in East India. 33. A silver fir which turns into stone. A hazelnut bush which has beaten a great oak in height and girth. 34. A strange willow in Silesia which has blossomed with roses. 35. A tree which simultaneously bears grapes, peaches and excellent almonds. 36. Tree leaves which have the sense of touch. 37. Trees whose fruit resemble a dragon. 38. Trees which can be bashful. 39. Trees whose fruit were eaten by Odysseys on his voyages. 40. Trees whose roots and leavers are poisonous, but also counteract the effects of poison depending on whether they are facing east or west. 41. Arbor trifitis. 42. Another tree species whose leaves have the sense of touch. They can also move from place to place. 43. Hollow trees which are tremendously thick and have wide spreading crowns. 44. An Assyrian apple tree. 45. Trees which simultaneously bear a number of different types of fruit. 46. Trees which produce wool. 47. Trees which produce honey. 48. Trees which attract coins, iron, stone and such like. 49. Trees which provide the ingredients of bread. 50. Trees which make women pregnant. 51. A tree whose root is initially a snake. 52. The king of the conifers before which the other conifers pay obeisance. Also trees which glow in the night. 53. A gigantic noble fir with a circumference of almost 80 yards at its base. Other overlarge trees. Enormous lindens in Esslingen. 54. A species of lime whose leaves resemble a monk's cowl. 55. Apple trees which flower and bear fruit on Christmas Eve. 56. A table whose boards are made of vine stems. 57. What sort of trees provide a livelihood to the principality of Orange and the barren mountainous region of Delphinati. 58. An oak which was found embedded in the salt in a salt mine. 59. A sandalwood tree as a whole forest. 60. Nails made from wood which are harder than iron. 61. Wood which burns with flames but is not consumed. Candon wood. 62. All the materials needed for building a ship, and also the cargo, are obtained from the palm tree. 63. The exuberant forest reserves and eben tree forests of Brazil. 64. The pleasantness of the tree plantations of Batavia. 65. Still more information about the dwellings of Indians in and on the trees. 66. In England there is a strange trunk formed from interwoven trees. 67. Trees which shed their leaves 12 hours a day and at the same time develop new ones. A tree whose leaves turn into birds. 68. Unusually thick and tall trees from China, like whole mulberry forests there. 69. Other rare trees from Brazil. 70. The wonder tree which grows in Hudson Bay helps to prevent all illnesses. 71. The strange Chinese banjan tree. (In the text Indian). 72. The reason why wooden masts in Venice conduct sound. 73. The icho bush, which grows in Peru, helps to separate mercury from its ore. 74. Trees which produce salt. 75. Notes on tropical trees. 76. The cultivation of tea bushes and the diversity of its leaves. 77. Very large orange trees in Persia. 78. Japanese diligence in the planting of trees. Trees which can be ground in a mortar and eaten. 79. The wonder tree which trembles and shakes when touched. 80. The East Indian devil tree. 81. What is the structure of the lemon tree that grows suspended in a Roman garden. 82. Trees which produce alum and sulphur. 83. Trees which, owing to their fine perfume, are weighed out with gold and silver. Could these trees be the same as the European Mastix tree. 84. China de China attains its best growth and vitality under the roots of spruce. 85. Large-sized Sassafraass and Brazilia trees. 86. Other unnaturally large trees from Mexico. 87. An elm in England whose lower half has turned to stone. A result of the appearance of metals in the soil. 88. Varnish which ants have collected from trees. 89. An unbelievably tall cypress. 90. A special species of oak from Sumatra. 91. A description of the Tamarind tree. 92. A description of the camphor tree.
CHAPTER TWELVE 1. Introduction. The usefulness of this material. 2. A description of the bog peat found in Saxony. 3. Its properties in the ground in general, and especially - 4. In the surface and bottom layers of the bog. 5. The soil underlying the peat layer. Where a broken tree has come from to a place like this. The growth layers of peat. 6. Can a site where peat has been extracted be used to grow something else, or would it be best to leave the area for new peat to grow. 7. How peat is extracted, how large are the lumps of peat removed, and how many of them are piled on top of each other. 8. What tools are needed for this work. 9. How peat is dried and how it is piled into heaps. 10. Making charcoal from the peat and how this work is arranged. 11.-12. The use of peat charcoal. The experiments done by the com-mission, set up by his Royal Highness, on the smelting of iron using peat charcoal. The advantages of peat charcoal compared to wood charcoal. 13. Similar experiments on the smelting of copper ore. 14. The viability of this charcoal. The great benefit which its use has brought to public wellbeing in the Ertzgebirge mountain region in Saxony.
15. Saxon peat is especially suitable for making charcoal.
Where could similar types of area still be found. Would the
more extensive use of peat be desirable. |
