A HEATED DISCUSSION
Often, the first scientific experiment conducted by the school student examines the strange properties of water; the properties that establish the foundations of temperature measurement and calibration. From such a trivial and mundane experiment, the knowledge gained is the first step to understanding, matter's intimate relationship with energy. Most materials, like solid steel, become colder when chilled, but when energy is applied, become hotter even after the solid melts into a liquid, but not water. The experiment identifies both a scientific mystery and an exception, where a mass of water molecules appears to be ideally suited to be the standard from which all other temperature measurements can be compared.
Depending on atmospheric pressure, water has two precise thermal barriers, from which the thermometer is calibrated. Below the cooler barrier, freezing point, water ice seems to defy Nature as it stays warm, holding the freezing point temperature, irrespective of how chilled the ice may be. The physical properties of super chilled ice are quite different to normal ice. At temperatures above the higher barrier, the boiling point, liquid water stays cold, maintaining the boiling temperature, even though the liberated steam may be super-heated by the hot atmosphere, the liquid remains cold. Between the melting point and boiling point barriers, water seems to respond like any other molecule to temperature change. But water does not follow matter's general trends, rather as ice melts, it forms a low density water. As the temperature continues to rise, liquid water becomes much more dense, but as the heating is further increased, the ice begins to slowly expand like most substances. Science has no explanation for this strange behaviour, or any understanding of the mechanisms involved.
The attitude of many educators when questioned about water's unnatural properties is one of blissful ignorance where the response is more of a veiled threat, "it just does, so accept the facts". Any blind acceptance without understanding is unscientific and dangerous because "the standard" is from that moment deluded and wrong. Accepting misinformation as a truth is identical to accepting the beliefs of a crazed fundamentalist religion whose teachings of "the whole truth" date to the sixth century, where all efforts is primarily to keep the people ignorant through the enforcement of beliefs.
Water is a terrible medium to have as a standard. It is easily contaminated, subject to variations, is a very active chemical, it changes its structure, its properties, and the list goes on. Almost as bad is the instrument used to measure temperature, the thermometer itself. This device has so many design problems and faults that to discuss the ramifications of its uses in various applications could take several large volumes. The aim here is to do the same in several pages.
Temperature is based on established and agreed arbitrary scales where the scientific community took the range from water's melting and boiling temperature, and the expansion of the metal Mercury in an enclosed tube. As the temperature rises, the expansion of liquid Mercury is seen as a constant, so it became easy to merely divide the expansion distance by a precise number. The French system uses 100 divisions, between 0 and 100. The older British system is weird because it establishes the basement freezing temperature at 32°. There are many fascinating stories as to why this scale adopted 180° graduations. Probably, since many early scientists and philosophers had their roots in geometry and as, Euclidian geometry points out, "there are 180 degrees in a straight line", it could be argued that the expansion between the freezing and melting temperature must be 180 degrees, thereby establishing the boiling point at 212°. This allows a very primitive thermometer to be constructed, where a material's expansion moves an arrow over the surface of a protractor.
Together these two temperature measurement systems allow other points to be determined. At - 40°, both scales read the same due to the algebra involved. This is an interesting exercise because it theoretically establishes accurate scales from -40 to boiling point. Equally, temperatures above and below the scale can be determined through simple algebra. Something seems a little odd since the algebra creates a self calibrating standard, using one set of observations, with two dissimilar linear scales on which all knowledge and predictions are built. Some authorities state "observations must start somewhere and this is the best place to start". But is this a scientific attitude?
There is yet another temperature scale. Named after Lord Kelvin, this scale is an extension of the French Celsius or Centigrade system, establishing an absolute zero temperature, the lowest possible energy point that matter can obtain. It is argued that such a point must exist in Nature; a temperature where all thermal motion, all activity ceases. For a temperature reduction of one Celsius degree, inert gas volumes decrease in volume at a linear rate, that being precisely 1 / 273rd of their volume. Adopted around 1961, the modern kinetic theory introduces the belief that a perfect gas would occupy zero volume and exhibit infinite density, since all atomic motion must cease at this absolute zero point ( - 273.16°C or 0°K). This temperature has never been produced. The kinetic theory is linked to the laws of thermodynamics, laws originally penned to explain the workings of simple machines. One must be cautious in accepting linear scales (as as previously illustrated with Hubble's Red-Shift-distance scale), for Nature plays many tricks. Over and over again, it will be noted that appearances deceive and what appears as the truth is far from the truth. The measurement of temperature will be shown to be an observational illusion. Shortly, the most impressive attribute of water will be shown, for water has the ability to remain as a liquid, without boiling or turning to steam at temperatures that cause glass and Pyrex to melt and flow ( t > 1,800°C). As a molecule, water can stay intact at temperatures exceeding 6,000° C.
The study of thermodynamic began around 1824 when Sadi Carnot investigated the conversion of heat into work (mechanical energy). Since then, Science has adopted the belief that no matter what the source of power is, the "heat" obtained from the source is converted into work by means of a "heat engine". To make the explanation plausible, Carnot introduced the concept of the "ideal heat engine cycle". This became the fundamental theoretical basis which Lord Kelvin and R. Clausius used to discover the second law of thermodynamics. Around the same time James Joules experimented with the reverse process, to determine the relationship of mechanical processes to the equivalent heat processes. Any discussion on thermodynamics at this moment would be a distraction, perhaps peremptory of other concerns. Perhaps Item one of this Chapter Notes may prove interesting.
At standard atmospheric pressure (sea level 1,000mb) frozen water melts. By definition this temperature is 0°C , 32°F or 273°K. With decreasing temperature the ice temperature magically remains at 0°C. At standard atmospheric pressure water boils at 100°C , 212°F or 373°K and no matter how much additional energy is applied, water's temperature remains at this temperature until it boils away. In some vessels, there is no way to boil away all the water, however the steam can be hotter. A block of water ice once frozen can be kept in the refrigerator at precisely 0°C with no need of a confinement vessel. Generally, the block can be picked up and put down with no adverse side effects. The cold block looks and feels dry for a few moments until the heat from the fingers or warm air melts the surface ice. There are no other visible effects noted until surface melting gives the ice good optical qualities.
Very strange are the properties of "super chilled ice" where the same block of ice is returned to the refrigerator and super chilled by a blower when the refrigerator is set on maximum cooling. On removal the ice will stick to the fingers and cause the atmospheric water to condense about the ice appearing as clouds. The ice may be so cold that it will burn the skin. Both blocks of ice appear dry, yet the super-chilled ice block still measures 0°C. Every physical sign says that it is colder. Ice made in the refrigerator can be very much like glass in that when glass is irregularly and suddenly heated or chilled, the internal stresses can cause the glass to fracture. Differential cooling of frozen distilled water, where the ice is super chilled by liquid Nitrogen on one end can cause the ice to develop stress cracks. Equally, when the freezing ice block tray is sprayed with hot water, a cracking sound is heard as the ice blocks develops stress fractures.
Just as mysterious is the very precise boiling temperature. When 250 ml of water (1 cup) is fiercely boiled in an open ceramic pot at standard atmospheric pressure, it boils at precisely 100°C. Be careful not to be burnt by hot steam.The steam rising from the bottom is a great deal hotter than the water, yet the immersed thermometer shows a temperature of precisely 100°C no matter how rapidly the water boils. A thermometer placed in the steam above rapidly boiling water shows a much higher steam temperature. As soon as the heating ceases, the boiling stops. If the heating is maintained at a slow rate, a teaspoon of common household white sugar added to the boiling water causes an immediate temperature drop to 98°C. The temperature starts to rise and the sugar water boils at the increased temperature of around 102°C.
To explain these events Chemistry has adopted explanations within the confines of historical knowledge ,where many observational illusions have been taken as fact. The high steam temperature is explained away using the latent heat of condensation. Seen when the water forms droplets, latent heat of condensation is said to be liberated, so the steam super heats the air. The second observation gives the Chemist the opportunity to prance around stating proudly that the temperature drop noticed when sugar is dissolved, proves that the sugar molecules break apart forming ions in solution, when all things dissolve, involving processes where energy is absorbed. These answers are not acceptable. Chemistry has failed to explain the mechanisms involved that maintain the temperatures of 0°C as ice, and 100°C at the boiling point.
These four point raise some fascinating questions when one challenges the accepted view of ions in solution; dissolving; liquids; sugar reactions; molecular alignment; material structures; chemical bonding; latent heat of condensation; melting; boiling;; temperature itself; and the accuracy of the thermometer. Many of today's accepted concepts and theories were adopted around 1850, so it is necessary to apply the technology of the Twentieth Century to test some of these beliefs.
In the following experiments, to reduce the impact of the measurement technique, the thermometer must be pre-heated to water's boiling temperature before each measurement is made, else the thermometer may shatter. WARNING: In the following experiment, the temperature of microwaved boiling water is to be measured. Both this water and the steam arising from it can cause severe burns if not respected or treated with adequate care. Basic protective clothing is recommended, such as an apron and insulated gloves.
Often such warnings are not given by the manufacturers of microwave ovens. Perhaps, this is to make a good product more saleable, where such a warning may scare potential customers away from this new technology. Manufacturers hide the warning in the sentence, "After the oven stops, leave the food in the oven for at least a minute to allow all the microwave energy to transfer throughout the food." If one follows this scientifically incredulous instruction, there is little or no danger of the dreadful steam-burns caused by eating super-heated foods. Once the oven turns off, all microwave activity ceases at that moment, however, resonant thermal radiation continues, and this may be a great deal hotter than super heated steam. Isolating the food for a minute actually allows the internal temperature to stabilise, dissipating certain resonances. Some food like the whole potato, can be so super heated, the potato remains extremely hot for a great deal longer. When a potato is boiled normally, it may remain hot for a few minutes, while one that has been microwaved may remain extremely hot for twenty minutes. Obviously, other mechanisms are actively working. This is so interesting, it must be examined.
In the following experiments, it is necessary to immediately access the oven at the moment of microwave shut-down and make the necessary measurements. Great Care must be taken in the following experiment.The kitchen 650 Watt microwave oven set on "High" for 3 minutes 30 seconds should suffice to boil a cup of water. If this time is not long enough, increase the time until the water boils. As the micro-waved water boils in the cup, remove the cup from the oven and place the pre-heated thermometer into it. The temperature will state precisely 100°C. As the water is still boiling in the cup, sprinkle one teaspoon of white sugar into the boiling water. DO NOT STIR. For just a moment a temperature drop (of less than 0.5°C) is noted. Without any heat added, the water suddenly and fiercely boils, virtually exploding in the next second as the sugar dissolves; the temperature rapidly climbs to 104°C. As this effect is so interesting, try adding more sugar. Now the temperature drops. This is quite odd. If this weird boiling is caused by the molecules then the same should happen again if the sugar-water is "zapped" again. Remove the thermometer and return it to the pre-heater pot of normal boiling water. Return the cup to the microwave for re-boiling. "Zap" the sugar-water in the microwave oven on high for another thirty seconds, boil, remove and throw in more sugar. The effects are far less than before. The sweet water in the cup simply stops boiling. Now, introduce the thermometer into the cup and disaster, for the water explodes. The wet metal scale backing cage of the thermometer causes the sugar-water liquid crystal to restructure producing an eruption. Again the temperature drops for a moment only to suddenly increase without the presence of any additional heat. Remove the thermometer to the pre-heater and "zap" the sweet water again.
At boiling, remove and add a teaspoon of instant coffee. The coffee contains freeze dried coffee oil. The oil not only floats on the surface but it partially enters into solution changing the surface tension and structure of the water. Effectively this coffee should result in an eruption. However it just fizzes like a carbonated soft drink, even when stirred with a metal spoon. The sugar seems to have modified the liquid crystal structure of water.
To create a kitchen disaster, boil a fresh 250 ml cup of water in the microwave oven. Rather than using sugar "throw a teaspoon of instant coffee" into the bubbling boiling water. Stand back! When the turbulence starts to abate measure the temperature of the remaining coffee (about 15 ml) in the cup. The coffee temperature increase can push the thermometer past 107°C however the effect of the coffee explosion is very short lived, so fast that the response of most thermometers will not be able to respond to the speed of the effect or the real temperature. Sometimes, when the thermometer is introduced, the coffee will boil again as the glass changes the water's crystal structure
The expansion of the thermometer's glass casing is so great, the volume increase in the glass causes the Mercury level to drop. Then it takes time for the Mercury or alcohol to respond to the temperature change. So, with all sudden temperature increases, the initial reading always shows a decrease in temperature at first contact. Equally, a warm thermometer put into freezing water shows the other part of the illusion where the temperature seemingly increases in the diminished volume before dropping slowly to the water temperature.
The results obtained from these experiments (the microwave and the thermometer) are really exciting because they reveal the currently held concepts of matter and energy as distorted. The thermometer is seen as a very poor instrument to measure "heat". Individual spectral lines can be intensely "hot", however the mean temperature does not show this massive temperature. The reaction may be so fast, the thermometer will not respond, though everything else in the area may be burnt by the speed of the reaction. Equally, the thermometer's temperature response band may distort this part of the spectrum giving incorrect measurements. There are many ramifications caused by the thermometer's failings, producing serious problems since the actual processes in chemical reactions, the properties of matter and every set of calculations based on temperature in Chemistry are challenged. Questions must be answered, starting with "what is temperature?" and "how can temperature be measured accurately?" before the real questions can be realized.
Some scientists state that temperature is the degree of atomic and molecular shaking taking place. Then there are those that believe temperature to be the thermal activity. Others state that temperature is the degree of movement or motion. To test this, the matter is vaporised into atoms, atomic particles and molecules. These particles are formed into a beam and accelerated in a cyclotron where the particle is pushed nearly to light speed. This gives a considerable degree of motion, but more so when the beam collides with itself or a stationary object. A great deal of energy is pushed into this "engine" to move those particles, perhaps as high as 20 Million Electron Volts (20 Mev), but is speed a temperature? When the high speed particle beam strikes other matter or impacts with itself, is the impact the temperature? These questions along with those about water's strange boiling habits can sit in the back of the mind for a few minutes as there are other areas which need to be explored.
The first hint here is that there is a big difference between the heating methods, but to answer this requires some background knowledge about the magnetic resonance spectrum. But first a little bit of History needs reviewing. At first the spectrum was an interesting effect caused by a prism of glass, a novelty. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) demonstrated that white light was composed of the spectrum, but could not explain it in terms of Rene Descartes light particles. Huygens made the connection to a wave motion but could not answer Newton's questions about frequency. In 1802 the astronomer William Hyde Wollaston pointed a spectroscope to the Sun and noted "dark lines". In 1814 Joseph von Fraunhofer repeated the experiment using a diffraction grating only to observe about 750 dark lines. Fraunhofer believed that these lines were related to excited atoms but could not explain them. For almost half a century these lines remained a mystery.
When spectral lines were first noted in an extremely hot flame, many of matter's innermost secrets were not realized. In 1859, Gustav Robert Kirchhoff made the necessary connections between the flame's bright lines and the Sun's dark lines by accident. He believed that he could intensify the Sun's yellow Sodium lines by placing a flask of Sodium vapour in the optical path, which he thought would resonate and intensify the Sodium effects. Rather than increasing the strength of the light, the Sodium vapour darkened the Sodium lines. Kirchhoff realized that these dark lines were being absorbed. As diffraction gratings and telescopes improved, the Sun began to reveal more lines from the simple burning reaction where, chemicals sprinkled into a flame burn and release resonant magnetic radiation in the optical spectrum. Further analysis with a spectroscope revealed that these flames showed both the spectral signatures of the chemicals being burnt and those formed, as well as identifying the temperature of the reaction when more pronounced and a greater number of spectral lines were produced with increasing activity.
During the development of the radio telescope, a fundamental breakthrough occurred. The radio telescope was tuned to 1,420 MHz and it detected the quiescent background Hydrogen. This is the natural "free" Hydrogen line existing on mass across the Universe. As Hydrogen is the most abundant of all atoms, it opened up the Universe, however, this line posed many interesting questions. The first discovery was that with increasing distance, the Hydrogen peak existed further down the spectrum, at 1419, at 1418, at 1410 etc. This is the "tired light effect", where distance in the interstellar medium presents a red-shift due to the dispersion caused by the conservation of energy. The effect gives astronomers a unique distance measuring scale that immediately revealed the shape and size of the Milky Way Galaxy, though this structure was not accepted as genuine for almost 25 years. Many astronomers disputed these findings and would not accept the facts because they were not optically confirm.
The problem faced by astronomers is that with all the free Hydrogen in the Universe, that being dark Hydrogen, it will be likened to Kirchhoff's Sodium intensification experiment, the one that failed, only to prove the existence of absorption lines. So, this free Hydrogen, will actively cause absorption bands in the "seeing conditions", effectively stopping all long distance views of the Universe at such frequencies. What is going to be seen in an absorption band? Absolutely nothing! Perhaps a mottled relief measured near absolute zero, showing no structure, no objects, no Universe.Distant astronomical objects show an optical truncation, (such as the Great Nebula in Orion) rather than a blur, hence 3-D effects due to the Tired Light Theory can be observed in real time. The Blue information is seperate from the Red information.
In the designed-to-fail experiment, (appendix 4) another interesting effect is noted, where radio frequency emissions are detected when chemical bonds break and form with the passage of electrons through a solution, or when used to charge a battery cell. By far the most interesting aspect of the manufactured battery cell is seen in the Lead-Acid rechargeable car battery, sold in a range of shapes, capacities, sizes and colours. When these batteries require a re-charge, the home trickle charger is a must. Typically there are three methods used to test such a battery. The first simply tests the voltage and is a fairly safe test with a voltmeter. The second test determines how "good" the battery is by doing a current drain test which is an incredibly dangerous test, in it sets out to measure the current flow that the battery can deliver. This establishes a virtual short circuit between the terminals, where the voltage drop across a one ohm resistance can be determined. Many lead acid batteries have exploded during this test showering sulphuric acid and fragments in every direction. People have been maimed, blinded and killed during this test. The third test is to use a hydrometer, to measure the acidity of the Sulphuric acid in each cell. When the acid in a cell presents a much altered specific gravity, there is every likelihood that the cell is damaged. It may be that the cell has an internal short circuit, or that the lead compounds have fallen apart, preventing electrons from flowing in the cell.
Many digital multimeters today have a frequency setting. This is to check the internal radio frequencies of the radio, such as the IF strip and mixer. Typically, these are quite insensitive, however when a car battery is being charged, something strange happens. With the meter's negative terminal connected to the battery's negative terminal, the rate of the reactions in each cell can be tested using this frequency counter setting of the meter. As every chemical reaction involves a "local" magnetic disturbance as the magnetic fields alter, so each the chemical reaction transmits a local M-wave signal. Since the positive terminal of the meter is not connected to anything, it acts as the aerial picking up the battery's state of health. All one needs to do is to hold the positive electrode near the battery casing. A totally discharged battery during the initial charging cycle may give a frequency of 10KHz. As the charging progresses, the rate of charging in each cell can be detected. At a point half way through the charging cycle, the frequency of a good battery is around 70KHz. Poorly operating and "shorted" cells give much lower figures. Hot spots can also be detected because these are powerful transmitters. The second the battery charger is turned off, the frequency drops to zero. When the charger is again "turned on", the frequency climbs steeply, then settles down. It may take five minutes to reach the frequency prior to killing the power.The flame also produces such radio emissions.
Having put the pieces together, all chemical reactions involve spectral activity, be it in a star, a flame, or in a solution. Anywhere chemical bonds are made or broken produces effects that can be detected with the appropriate frequency range spectroscope. Chemicals meeting in a solution produce spectral lines which increase the temperature (the average energy state) of the solution. The thermometer shows the approximate mean temperature in the thermal region, but does not measure the real temperature. The true temperature can only be detected with a spectroscope capable of analysing the total magnetic spectral energy. To use a thermometer means accepting the thermometer's measurement window alone, but this may not be accurate in the desired frequency band.
Unfortunately all thermodynamic observations use the thermometer as the ultimate test and calibration source to calculate all reaction energies. Calorific measurements involve the thermometer. Thus, one can only argue that since the method of measurement is poor, all observations based on the results from those observations are wrong. Scientifically the results cannot be used and all laws derived from those observations, must be challenged and reassessed.
The incandescent light and cavity radiation produce a uniform broad band spectrum without definable spectral lines. There are several popular fluorescent tube designs for use in different applications giving each a unique spectra. In comparison to the light bulb, the fluorescent lamp gives greater illumination and energy efficiency, presenting a spectrum with several very bright peaks in the violet, green and red regions. Some fluorescent tubes may also have a reasonably constant background spectra. The most spectacular are the "Phillips" energy efficient lamps, having the seven primary colours only (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet) with voids between each spectral line. The colours listed in bold print above are very intense.
The microwave oven uses a device called a magnetron to create a radio signal. This is a free running oscillator circuit which means that it produces one major spectral line in the microwave region. Very early industrial microwave ovens ran at a frequency of 1,100 MHz, (1.1 GHz) but they posed an interesting cooking problem. A deep frozen meat pie can be defrosted and cooked in a few minutes, however the gravy would be intensely hot while the meat remained frozen, giving one a taste sensation of the worst order. There were many strange beliefs spread by the unknowing and these seemed to be backed up with observable fact at the time. The most untrue is "Microwave energy cooks from the inside to the outside". This event seemed to happen at the 1.1 GHz frequency but this effect differs with different materials and how each responded to the microwave energy at this frequency, as was illustrated by the meat pie.
To overcome this, manufacturers increased the radio frequency to above 2 GHz and this improved the procedures used for both defrosting and cooking cycles, hence the oven cooks the meat, vegetables, gravy and pastry at reasonably consistent rates in a slightly longer time. A frozen dish of vegetable and meat soup placed in the oven on "high" for 10 minutes shows the direction of cooking from the outside to the centre. The outside may be boiling fiercely while the centre remains almost frozen. If the soup was to be lunch, then this experiment will be a lunch time disaster in terms of gastronomy and the culinary sciences. The soup may be so badly burnt around the circumference of the dish it gives the soup a "unique" flavour. Again, this is a taste experience to avoid.
When water is heated in a pot, convection cells transfer the heat from the point of heating throughout the liquid. The convection cell is often over-simplified for many processes are occurring as molecules move the heat throughout the water. The spectrum of the water if viewed should be much like an incandescent light, almost even across the entire spectrum. However, microwave energy is quite fascinating since the wave length of the radio signal is many times greater than the molecular size. It has been suggested already that water bombarded by the microwave carrier signal develops thermal spectral lines which are hotter than boiling water so when the water dissolves the sugar a different alignment of the water molecules and energy throughput pushes the spectral line into the thermal region, effectively raising the temperature above the boiling point. Sugar's structural changes in water have been noted throughout Chemistry for many years, such as when a small quantity of sugar is able to change the optical polarization properties of water.
Heating a steel rod at one end begins a process of transferring heat slowly to the other end. Steel can show a "grey scale" of different temperatures, a linear rate of temperature decrease from the heated zone to the cold end. In comparison, ice just sits there at 0°C even though the air temperature is -130°C. Strange is the fact that super chilled ice still shows 0°C on the scale, but it is so cold, not only does it adhere to the skin but it can cause substantial freeze burning to the human body. These temperature foibles point directly to a quiescent matter transmission state where a spectra exists in the thermal region with water, naturally transmitting a signal, stating water's current molecular state. As ice, the water molecule must be resonant producing a series of quiescent spectral thermal lines which are brighter than the real temperature of ice. Changes in the environmental energy alter the power and intensity of water's other transmission lines. Water's thermal signature is more powerful in the "local region" than water's real thermal activity.
The boiling and melting points can be altered by increasing or decreasing the pressure. Increasing the pressure increases the zone of liquidisation causing the water to freeze at much lower temperatures and boil at a much higher temperature. Decreasing the temperature causes the water to freeze at higher temperatures and boil at much lower temperatures. Interesting to note is that at the upper and lower points most chemical solution bonds associated with water 's solutions break. Freezing and fractional distillation of the solution separate impurities from the water. Altering the water's available energy with height suddenly causes ice to uniformly liquefy or for liquid water to freeze on mass.
It is necessary to revisit resonance. In the quiescent state, Hydrogen is known to be emitting spectral lines. The spinning elpron's magnetic field is pulsating, as surges, and resonating with a certain natural tone. When an undamped piano string is struck, in vibrating it produces a fundamental tone coloured with many harmonics. Undamped, the string resonates at fundamental tones the other harmonics are modulated by the environment (the resonant chamber, the material, and position). The Hydrogen atom does the same. The most well known example of this is what astronomers call "the Hydrogen line". The radio telescope tuned to 1,440 MHz (1.44 GHz) detects the cacophony of Hydrogen in the Universe, which shows in our galaxy with a red shift associated with distance due to the tired light effect.
The piano string tuned to middle "C" resonates at 440
Hz. One does not need to strike a piano string to cause it to resonate.
It will passively resonate in sympathety with introduced sounds. Hold
the sustain pedal of a piano open and merely talk near the instrument
to hear the effect. Analysis of a resonant string shows wavelengths that
are shorted and much longer than the frequency. Middle-C is not just resonant to 440
Hz but also to the following sub-harmonics and infrasounds;
220, 110, 55, 27.5, 13.75, 6.875, 3.4375, 1.71875, 0.859375, 0.4296875
and 0.21484375 Hz to name but a few.
Above the piano string's fundamental note, resonance can be stimulated
by the frequencies
880 Hz, then 1.760, 3.520, 7.040, 14.080 ..... KHz.
Between these harmonics are other tones which cause the strings to resonate. When the damper pad is lifted from just the "Middle C" note, an audio oscillator and amplifier can show the "loading tones", which are introduced by many of the variables in the piano's construction, the string and the tension. Loading and the direction of resonance change the tonal qualities of the string. The grand piano's strings are affected by the Coriolis forces and the geographic direction of the strings.
As each string vibrates, it physically moves in space by a precise distance, related to the energy applied, the ability of the string to stretch and restore, and the tension. This physical deviation moves the air molecules and the resonant chamber attached to the instrument, creating a specific physical deviation in the air molecules. Perhaps the strangest of all calibrated measuring systems is that used to measure sound. The Sound intensity is measured in decibels. Effectively, a 3 dB rise in volume is equivalent to increasing the volume by a factor of two. The decibel scale does not start at zero, rather the zero marker point is established at one of two points.
The common system noted on most tape recorders is that for normal musical intensity, which sets the zero point, at about the level of a normal excited conversation. On this setting, any good sound level meter at a distance of one metre would detect the sound of a person scratching themselves, where the sound level produced is around - 80 dBm. The other decibel system, establishes the zero point just below at a child's hearing threshold. Normally, this threshold is around 2 to 4 dB, however people can become selectively deafened to certain frequencies. The background noise in an anechoic chamber may reach as high as 7 dB due to the chamber picking up the sound of the blood rushing through a person's body. A quiet whisper is heard at 25 dB. Normal conversations come in at 70 to 80 dB. The pain threshold is reached at 130 dB while the screaming jet engine, measured at a distance of one metre, reaches a level of just 145 dB. The decibel scale, as mentioned is not a linear scale, rather it is a logarithmic or exponential scale where every 3 dB doubles the physical motion at a precise frequency.
As was illustrated, although the temperature scale is linear, the actual degrees are a logarithmic increase. This can be proven mathematically, as molecules of Mercury in the thermometer are assumed to expand at a linear rate with a temperature increase. For any material to expand in this way, means that the separation between the molecules must have increased, as a function of velocity squared. For the magnetic fields holding matter apart to grown larger at a linear rate, requires the electrical current to increase exponentially.
This does not fit in with electrical theory or Newtonian Physics because the theory has been in-error for so long. For the field size to create a change that exerts twice the force, to push other matter that much further away, involves a non-linear increase in the electrical current flow in each atom. The temperature scale is only linear because mankind has made it so, to agree with the observed, since the activity producing the expansion, the mechanism is only observed at the atomic level, as a consequence of altered magneto-molecular bonds. The temperature scales are all arbitrary-agreed-to-scales without any correlation to Nature's real temperature conditions. Therefore the measurements of all bond lengths are subject to temperature variants. But what then is temperature?
The intensity of the electrical activity producing the thermal activity must be increasing at a rate greater than the apparent linear temperature scales. Nature must use a logarithmic scale. This is borne out by Ampère's Law, which expresses the relationship of electrical current to the magnetic field produced by that current. This law is in absolute conflict to Chemistry's temperature scale, and as such, it show the tragedy in accepting as fact or truth, any observational illusion without knowledge of the mechanisms involved, for the laws of thermodynamics are all built on observational illusions, as are the laws of enthalpy. When any theory is built on an illusion, no matter how perfectly the mathematics seem to work, the scenarios introduced have no truth in the workings of Nature. Temperature must be redefined.
This presents Chemistry with a massive problem that cannot be put in the too-hard-basket. Some may ask "Well Mr. O'Keeffe, with what are you going to replace the definition of temperature, temperature scales, calibration, and thermodynamics, for you must come up with something better! " Passing-the-buck back-to the author is a scientific cop-out, for it is Chemistry that must seek out an answer, to resolve the understanding and reasons for the workings of the mathematics in enthalpy and thermodynamics, for they seem to work, and in so doing Chemistry will discover the truth in these and many other theories.
This knowledge virus is too large to be discussed in full, requiring several volumes to answer, since the problems caused by accepting the temperature scale as the truth, and other things which appear to be true as truths, are quite frightening. In Nature, Chemistry only works because of the Physics involved in the atomic model, and Physics only works when the Chemistry of matter allows Physics to work in the real world. To put the blinkers on and state "I am a Chemist", or "I am a Physicist" does not improve the situation because the comments introduce an "I don't want to know" attitude, a demarcation barrier, a line that cannot be crossed because "they" are on the other side of the line, with all their silly beliefs. The challenge posed requires the person to know the other's subject and state proudly, "I am a scientist." One must care to look, for the challenge is now in the public arena.
ref: "Quantum", "Future Fantastic"
series; Programme name: "Weird Science"
Presenter: Gillian Anderson Co Production: BBC, The Learning
Channel, Pro Seiben
Producer:Simon Dickson 1996
Return to reading Chapter 22 the text.
APPARENTLY, NOWHERE ?
Water is claimed to be absolutely incompressible, yet sound travels through water at 1,450 m/s (4,760 ft/s). Jim Griggs (an engineer from Georgia (USA)) noticed that when a cold water pipe began to knock the pipe grew warm. He attributed the effect to standing waves developing in the pipe. With this scanty piece in the jig saw puzzle, he invented a pump that turns water into steam without the use of heat or microwaves.
On first glance the hydrosonic pump is a similar device to that used by James Prescott Joules in 1843 in the experiments which gave the first conversion factor called "the mechanical equivalent of heat" (4.1868 Joules per calorie). Joules used the standard potential energy equation ( PE = mgh ) to determine the energy obtained as masses fall through a distance. In this situation Joules actually used gravitational potential difference so there is no challenge to be made. When a mass of 100 Kg drops through 50 metres its energy output is about 49,033 Joules of work producing some 11,711 calories. A calorie raises the temperature of a cubic centimetre of water one degree. The paddles and baffles used by Joules raised the temperature of the water quite effectively.
Although the Grigg's hydrosonic pump is electrically operated the energy output appears to be far greater than the energy input. The Hydrosonic pump is different in design to all other pumps in that it sends compression wave pulses (P-waves) through the water millions of times per second. The Griggs' discovery not only converts mechanical energy to heat, it does some funny things which become obvious at the atomic level. Pure water is incompressible, however water is far from pure. All it takes is a little air. The observation of the knocking water pipe demands an explanation first, since the speed of sound is far higher in water than air.
A near horizontal water pipe running slightly downhill along the side of a building can develop knocks due to air accumulating in the pipe at the uphill point. When a water tap is suddenly turned off the water compresses the air and recoils many times causing a knock. The sound that results is very loud, quite disturbing and low frequency, sounding like a slamming door. Remove the air and the pipe is quiet for a time until more air becomes trapped. Continuously flowing water in a pipe should pass the air and water together, however the air trap may be so severe in the pipe that as the water pushes past the air it carries some with it, compressing the air at the low end of the pipe or along the pipe at a point. The pressure in the air reaches such a point that the air forces its way past the water back to the trap, causing a shock as the water stops and starts, compressing the air, reverberating. This process not only warms the pipe, the knocking stresses the pipe so much that it may eventually result in the pipe's structural failure.
The Hydrosonic pump is far more interesting because the answer requires Nature's laws at the empirical frame of reference. It does not matter how the pump works mechanically, just the fact that it pulses the water over a million times a second. Nature takes the most efficient path. Since water cannot be compressed, Nature demands that the water be torn apart by stretching the water. This can be displayed using a partially filled 1mL syringe. The needle must be removed. Fill the syringe with 40 units of water. When all air bubbles are removed from the syringe, seal the hole where the needle fits with a fast drying glue ball. Any attempt to compress 40 units of water will be fruitless, however when the plunger is pulled to the 45 unit mark, bubbles appear. Releasing the plunger returns the water to a bubble free condition at 40 units. This experiment shows that the air molecules are severely stressed. Most air molecules are larger than the water molecules, so as they break and form solution bonds, the water heats since all the molecules are undergoing massive magnetic changes. If this process is repeated many times, the water becomes very warm very quickly. The action of the dissolved air and the force needed to stress the water, is rapidly converted and released as apparent heat. The hydrosonic pump is a most efficient method in carrying out this operation. The Grigg's hydrosonic pump is one where the wrong interpretation of the observations, gave rise to an important discovery in relation to this work. More energy should be liberated than put into the system.
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