© Copyright 1995, R.Lanigan-O'Keeffe, Sydney Australia. Not for copying without permission.

Return to Table of Contents
Return to HOME PAGE
Forward to The Final Chapter
Return to Twenty Two

The still cloudless moonless night sky presents a seemingly endless view of The Milky Way and The Universe that between the stars, simply fades to black. This fading to black is reinforced with even larger telescopes. Although light gathered by the telescope is concentrated by optical design, the number of stars observed is dependent on many factors, but again the universe simply fades into the distance. Between the stars, a mottled blackness.

For an observer to view a far distant object today, to see it where it existed some 13 thousand million years ago, as it was all that time ago, does not mean that The Universe is that age. It does means that the Universe is a great deal older, for that object existed there, having evolved to a stage where it had become extremely bright. A sphere whose radius is 13 thousand million light years marks today's technological limit. This technological limit can only grow larger as better equipment extends the 'seeing conditions' as better bigger more sensitive telescopes come on-line. Due to the slow speed of light, all objects contained in this technologically limited sphere existed at their presently observed location at a date proportional to the object's radial position from the Earth.

Contemplate this sphere, 26 American billion light years diameter with the Earth at the very centre. Please ask, 'Where are these objects now and what changes have taken place?' Although this question allows one to dream, one should not rashly speculate on dreams. One can only examine fragments of astronomical history that record the changes throughout the recent 140 years of astrophotographic research and from old star maps (only if those objects were bright enough to be recorded). Many early photographic images captured on glass plates, although locked-away in vaults have been lost by chemical and fungal attack. As some research projects were completed, economic rationalisation has subsequently led to many out-of-date images being destroyed. Fortunately, some important records remain, saved from the 1890's by libraries, publishers and authors. The plight of astronomical history is an issue that needs to be addressed at another time.

With the appreciation of the Solar System, then the Galaxy, and finally the Universe, theories were developed in that order to explain the origins of each. All were independent stand alone theories rather than a continual evolutionary system theory composed of specific mechanisms. Although there are many different theories for the origin of the Solar System, fundamental problems to do with the dynamics and structure of the Solar System have never been fully addressed in one theory. The same must be said about the origin of the galaxies in the Universe. Any description of one origin, must describe all origins. To describe the small picture of the Solar System demands describing the big picture of the Universe at the atomic level. One must solve the oldest problem first to explain the formation of the stars, nebula before the dark bodies (planets, moons, rings, asteroids and comets) are given a look in.

To further develop and resolve the discussions that were developed earlier in this work, it will be necessary to revisit this territory and clarify some points, bringing the evidence to the fore. In seeking to explain the origins of the Universe, there have been some impressive questions asked. Olbers made a very astute observation in posing an interesting paradox. "If there exists an infinite number of stars in the heavens, should not the night sky be infinitely bright?" As trivial as the remark appears, the hallways of science resounded to voices seeking out some resolution to the paradox. Both the Steady State and Expanding Universe movements have claimed this paradox as a proof that their theory is true, just as the Tired Light theory attempts to capture and explain away Olbers' remark. The Herschells first suggested a reason, however, their simplistic approach (although revolutionary for the time) assumed that light got tired and ran out-of-puff. The great Ross Telescope and astrophotography began to reveal this belief to be deluded, indicating a technological limit to the eye-telescope sensitivity. Increasing the telescope's diameter captured more light from objects near and far, to reveal fainter more detailed images of objects never seen before. Only the giant telescopes built on mountain tops could concentrate the very faint star light to extend the visual limit of the Universe. Light was not running out-of-puff, rather the light was too faint to be detected. Only with better mechanical amplification can those objects be seen.

History shows the Herschells as being on the right track, using the inverse square law to calculate distances to stars, but the Herschells needed more information than the sciences of the time could provide. For the sake of argument, they assumed that all stars had an intrinsic finite brightness. Little did they realise that the closest star to the Sun would turn out to be the dull brown star Proxima Centauri, an apparent magnitude of 10.5, making it extremely faint at 4.2 light years. Often, it is incorrectly asserted by people who know better that the closest star (singular) is Alpha Centauri at 4.3 light years. Only because this close double star (plural) appears so bright (at magnitude 0.00), did it attracted the attention of early astronomers who determined it's solar parallax. Proxima remained hidden until photographic records showed it to be closer. The dog star Sirius is the brightest star, having an apparent magnitude of -1.47, even though it is 9 light years away. The distinction being made here is that Sirius is over twice as far away as Alpha Centauri and effectively 15 times brighter ( (2.5 x 1.5) x 2² ). The Herschells placed stars inside the limits of the Solar System due to the difference between apparent brightness and absolute brightness.

Historically, things must be put in perspective because during the nineteenth century The Church still had a great deal of power, reinforcing the belief in an eternal and fixed universe. Arising from observations, astronomers slowly began to picture a universe that is noticeably changing. In just fifty years, some bright stars faded away, while others began to appear. Astronomers started to question whether previous astronomers had made errors. Playing the game, spot-the-differences, led to some fascinating scientific insights into the evolving Universe. In comparing accurate star maps made since Tycho Brache, changes in brightness and position led to identify close double stars, tumbling around together. There was more than just orbital precession causing the fixed stars to gradually move about the celestial equator, there was also the star's proper motion. Rogue stars were later found photographically, to be travelling at right angles or in the opposite direction to precession. Orbiting dark bodies made some stars wobble. Then it was realised some objects were being blanketed by obscuring clouds of dust and gas. Areas of astronomical delight are found in Scorpio and Orion, because the magnitudes of some stars that seemed to remain constant, suddenly change in brightness as obscuring cloud drifts by, making some fade and others brighten.

Because of humanity's obsession with origins, problems were faced by astronomers seeking theories to explain the origin of the Sun, Solar System, the Milky Way and the Universe. The Judeo-Christian Bible may have begun this passion with the story of the genesis, the origin of life. To finish and complete the work is the extinction, in the Revelation of St. John. Ever so slowly a different picture of the beginning and the ending was emerging, a theory of a continual and on-going evolution that seemed to have no valid beginning and many local extinctions. Although astronomers adopted the uniformitarian principle, the processes that occurred in the past, occur today and will continue to occur into the future, this was not the view that some wanted to hear, demanding a Universe that is not as eternal nor as infinite as their God. So, they argued "The universe must have a beginning, as it must have an ending. The Earth was created at 10 PM (EAST) in 4004 BC". The Julian Date used by astronomers for calculations is computed from the Christian-Hebrew creationist's date in 4004 BC, with each new day number beginning at 12 noon GMT.

Around 1913, V.M.Slipher observed that light from a particular band of astronomical objects, inclined at a high angle to the galactic equator, possessed strange spectral shift into the Red. It could not be explained until two American Astronomers, Humason and Hubble adopted a fixed mind-set approach, expressing the only possible explanation for such a red shift with distance would be the Doppler shift. Einstein had predicted a Universe that was either expanding or contracting, and this appeared as a proof of General Relativity. The objects, Hubble argued, must be moving away with an increasing velocity as the distance increases. Today identified as the galaxies and quasars, these objects proved to be exterior to the Milky Way. Baade's studies of the spectacular Andromeda galaxy M31, (measured at 3° to 4°.5 across) indicated a line-of-sight distance of approximately 1.5 million light years.

This view of an expanding universe seemed to fit beautifully with the concepts envisaged by the Russian physicist Alexsander Friedman and G. Lemaitre (a Belgian Jesuit priest) around 1920 and later by George Gamow, where at the beginning of time, the Universe began its existence as an extremely hot and dense concentration of matter. Gamow named the substance 'ylem' from Aristotle's basic stuff from which all matter was derived. It would later become known as the primordial nuclear soup.

Rutherford's atomic model took the story off-on-a-tangent, in suggesting massive empty spaces within the atom, the electrons orbiting a central dense nucleus. Rutherford's analysis led him to believe that the most dense concentration of matter would be found in the nucleus itself. Gamow argued that if all the matter in the universe, if compacted as ylem to this density would fit into a sphere the size of the Solar System. In this description, it is stated that the Earth would have fitted into a sphere just 65 metres across. Needless to say, the temperature of this concentrated matter ball went through the roof as the ylem (in a run-away reaction) simply exploded. With expansion, the Universe raced apart and as it cooled formed protons and electrons. In this explosive heat protons and electrons were fused together, forming atoms and later neutrons. The cooling hot matter began to leave swirling islands, burning away the energy that came from the initial explosion. Eventually all the energy would be liberated leaving a dark void, devoid of all matter and light. This dour gloom and doom ending established the first of the Expanding Universe theories, the first of the Big Bang series of theories.

At this point, several very poor terrestrially based assumptions had been made about matter, and accepted blindly as fact. One being that the nucleus contained the densest material known in the Universe. Well, theory says it is so, so it must be so! To this is added the assumption about the total amount of matter in the Universe, made without justification, substantiation or proof. More assumptions were made without means or mechanism to explain the temperature rise in the primordial ball of ylem. Descriptions and explanations of both temperature and pressure were not adequate. Under current cosmological beliefs, this concept compressing all of the matter into a single tiny ball at the absolute maximum packing density must form the ultimate blackhole. It must collapse in on itself, creating a hole in space-time, so much so that it could never explode. Theory says that is so, so that must be so! The assumption that the nucleus is the densest packing density would also mean that every atom would collapse as a blackhole.

However, with Hubble's red shift observations, the expansion theory seemed to fit so well into the teachings of the Church, that its popularity spread. However, Hubble stated a recent beginning just 1.8 thousand million years ago, at a time when geologists were claiming an Earth age somewhere between 3 and 5 thousand million years. 'Well what would they know? Genesis is true, 'cause God made the stars after he made the Earth. It says, on the third day (Genesis 16),

Many astronomers, not convinced by this fanciful explosive origin expressed grave concerns and opposition, basing arguments on the enormous force of gravity, the distribution of angular momentum, and the question, where did this mass of ylem come from in the first place? This double edged question put the reletavites and Quantaguppies on the defence for they needed to suggest other big bang possibilities that would better suite their beliefs, theories that may work. This would require marketing their beliefs through propaganda and deceptive advertising.

Around the same time, a Cambridge postgraduate student, Thomas Gold suggested a highly plausible model dealing with the continual creation of fresh Hydrogen and Helium throughout the Universe; matter from nothing, a universe in a state of perpetual balance. As matter is lost when the energy is used up in the process of universal expansion, more matter forms and grows between existing matter. Both Fred Hoyle and Herman Bondi worked on this model because it seemed to explain so much more about the Universe than any big bang. This theory could explain the strange Blue shifts of some of the closer galaxies. Although the steady state theory was thus formulated, it allowed three options to be debated in scientific circles,

• that the Big Bang began the Universe and with expansion, the Universe will grow cold and die.
• That the Universe was, is, and will continue to be, as matter replaces lost matter.
• That the Big Bang occurred and as the Universe expands, matter is created to replace matter lost in the application of energy.

The uniformitarian view of the Universe, being as it was, is, and will be, is now considered to be the Steady State Theory. Incorrectly this uniformitarian view is twisted around and used to expound the virtues and short-sightedness of the steady state believers where the universe becomes fixed and unchanging, contrary to the knowledge of Red shifts and proper motion. Everyone knows such a boring concept is not the case. The Universe is in constant evolution due to the Big Bang. Remember, all is fair in a debate.

One way of explaining the workings of the steady state theory is to examine the effect of gravity in Einstein's theory of General relativity. Although the equation E = mc² is accepted, it is an approximation that works on the Earth, meaning that it may not work everywhere in the Universe. It was argued that with increasing height, or between two massive gravitational bodies, the energy needed to create matter from nothing is nothing.

Such a remark brought out the big guns, the arm-chair non-astronomically minded relatavites and the research boffins from the backroom to attack without just cause the belief that potential energy decreases with height. Such an idea as energy from nothing was not on. At this point several contradictions have been introduced into the sciences. Einstein stated that energy cannot be created nor destroyed. Chemistry maintained the nineteenth century belief that matter cannot be created nor destroyed. Einstein maintained that because matter is solidified energy, it once existed as pure energy, so it can be destroyed and will liberate its energy. With the expansion of the Big Bang theories, the universe began as pure energy, but something went dreadfully amiss which caused the Big Bang, and with this pure energy was compacted into matter as the explosive shock front raced outwards making islands of swirling glowing matter throughout the Universe. Einstein went further predicting an on-going reverberation that should be detectable as a background radiation from space. With radio in its infancy, this prediction was made before the discovery of Radio Astronomy. However, early radio astronomy experiments did not 'hear' or detect this reverberation, rather through the hiss and static levels, a picture of the galaxy emerged (below), something that should have been predicted.

Because Einstein' theory suggested a universe that is either open or closed, one that is rither expanding or compacting, the next popular theory to come into the arena involved the oscillating universe. This theory stated that after universe expansion began, gravity worked and slowed matter's expansion. Eventually the gravity would be so great that all would be pulled back to the centre, creating the big crunch. As temperatures rise, the Universe again explodes, forming a series of on-going big bangs, with the universe expanding and contracting forever.

With Oppenheimer's work into the theoretical blackhole, several conceptual mistakes came together, however other errors were realised in regard to the primordial soup from which all matter must have begun. Maybe the steady state theory was right because at that concentration, a blackhole must form. To get around this curly point (and to agree with popular theory) some contemplated a big bang origin related to the time-space continuum itself, where a momentary warp distorted time-space, instantly creating matter throughout the entire Universe, at a speed greater than light. This non-bang big bang would radiate outwards, but if their theory is correct, should not create a reverberation.

The sixth and seventh Big Bang theories asked the question, "What if time and matter flipped, matter becoming anti-matter, time becoming anti-time? Isaac Asimov suggested a fascinating version of this theory, called the four-leaf-clover oscillation theory, where both time and matter are given positive and negative coordinates. As the time scale is at right angles to the matter scale, there are four quadrants, positive time and matter, negative time and matter, negative-time-positive-matter and positive-time-negative-matter. Expansion he proposed began with positive matter and positive time following a Celtic design between the quadrants, expanding and contracting in each quadrant forever, perhaps somewhat Ying Yang inspired.

When Quantum theory, Special relativity and General relativity were amalgamated into a single mathematical diatribe, Science and Nature were attacked as sophistication became proof, rather than the scientific method. Science fiction replaced logic in a unified field theory, where contrary theory made it necessary to link the Universe with the dimensions of matter, position and time, with four to ten dimensions that no one really defined. From this convoluted start, convoluted theory introduced the concept of bubbles existing in the fabric of space-time. As their bubble bath filled, in the effervescence of wild imagination several new theories squeezed the bubbles into a 'foam'. As more theories evolved, the parallel and multiple universes with multiple simultaneous big bangs, blew matter apart, with the formation or worm holes that could be re-positioned around the universe. The theory goes on to suggest that blackholes exist between the atoms themselves. Such theory was now out-of-control, pandering to political and religious convictions. Some with a publish or perish mentality went further than the most extraordinary science fiction writers. Without examining the entire picture, using logical analysis, the beguiled accepted flavour-of-the-month scenarios due to peer pressure and hype.

Consequently, there are a great many theories on the structure and evolution of galaxies, when observations, conclusions and theories are generally seen in conflict. Some theories parallelled Hubble's idea, where the galaxies were spun off in the Big Bang as islands of matter, as rapidly spinning balls of matter. Due to the conservation of energy, the galaxy evolved. This can be demonstrated with a cup of hot coffee or tea, where stirring cup forms a central core of bubbles in the vortex. As the rotational speed decreases, the centripetal forces that attempt to pull the matter apart eventually overcome the Coriolis circulatory mechanisms allowing an equatorial expansion. The spinning ball begins to flatten, as matter from the central galactic core travels into the spiral arms. This theory has a great deal of merit. The same physics can be used to explain many other natural phenomena.

In more recent times, with the popular acceptance of blackholes, uncertainty and chaos, the situation is reversed. Place a blackhole at the centre of the galaxy and all surrounding matter will be dragged into it clutches, disappearing into the gravitational abyss of the space time continuum. This theory if taken to the extreme suggests the final picture of the Universe as a black void filled with near blackhole mass objects. Once the blackhole itself begins to disappear into itself, a point will be reached where it is no longer a blackhole. Even here, there are several schools of thought as to what will be left.

As there is no existing evidence found anywhere in the Universe to date, it has become necessary to look for that evidence. It was stated that present day cosmology is on the cutting edge of physics and since many of the laws applied in cosmology have not yet been discovered or applied in Physics, objects predicted to exist must exist because the theory say they exist and because they do exist ! Such an unscientific approach is thwart with danger. When some theory lays claim to a school of objects or observations, theory may be accepted above all other explanations, including valid explanations. Normal objects that appear to fit the criterion, may be accepted as good examples of the predicted effect. Very little was known about the Sun or the properties of light and matter when Einstein made certain predictions in his general theory of relativity. So it is that many things explained by General Relativity, can also have perfectly valid explanations through other means. Nature will deceive the unwary.

Towards the end of the 1950's, the hunt was on to find Einstein's background radiation from space. There were many article concerning this search, but there was no luck. The radio receivers that were detecting the noise of the Universe were not that sensitive, suffering from thermal noise. As radio frequencies increased and receivers improved with transistors and FET devices, the 21 cm Hydrogen line was realised. Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the Universe was transmitting a natural resonant frequency. It was an amazing discovery but what was more amazing at the time was the appearance of a frequency dispersion in the galaxy due to distance. Finally, the galaxy started to reveal its true shape. However as only two sites had the equipment to view the Milky Way, the following observation of the galactic shape remained unconfirmed till about 1961 when the International Astronomical Union changed the galactic coordinate system to fit the radio data, as illustrated below. Even so, optical astronomers were dubious of the early conclusions drawn because the Sydney site revealed but one portion of the structure while the Leiden site filled in the other. There were only a few points of commonality.

1959 Astronomy by Baker 1961 Radio Astronomy J.H.Piddington An Introduction To Astronomy Baker and Fredrick 1968

1970 WEA Astronomy Course Notes Astronomical Insights ABC

1977 Physics for the technician (MIR Publications, Moscow))

NASA scientists eventually announced that they had found the proof of the big bang, having found what appeared to be a low level background hiss in the microwave region. There was seemingly no structure to the image formed in the microwave map, quite different to the Radio and optical mapss, totally devoid of detail and known structures that should appear across the entire radio spectrum irrespective of frequency. Where were the first magnitude radio objects, Cygnus-A Virgo-A Cassopeia-A and Centaurus-A ? Where is the galactic centre? The map appeared without the important basic detail that must be found. With just a mottled blurred image, without adequate proof or reason for the effect, this observation was claimed as conclusive proof of the Big Bang. So, which Big Bang theory? Of course, there is the other problem of looking at the Universe through an opaque absorption band, for that would create exactly the same effects, a mottled map devoid of all detail that exists above and below that frequency band. One can have a good laugh when researching the Big Bang theories as illustrated by the pre-big bang shock wave..

By far the worst problem facing all the big bang theories is the importance of Cosine Theta in the Universe. Many people fail to realise how a stupid and childish error can lead the sciences astray. Hubble's Harpoon is a classic example. Such is the importance of Cosine Theta with respect to the fundamental basis of all Big Bang expansion theories. If one does not understand or realise the importance of Cosine Theta in the Universe, then one seriously needs to upgrade their education. This harpoon will burst the balloon of all expansion theories, using Hubble's observations.Click here to use Hubble's Harpoon.

At the humble end of the origin theories are those concerning the Origin of the Solar System and the Earth. It is time to re-think the whole situation of origins and present yet another theory of origination. A theory that seems far more plausible through simple mechanism, though if true would increase the size and age of the Universe to a figure that no one could comprehend. The coffee cup experiment, although simplistic and involves many other effects, illustrates the fundamental physics with the formation of the concentration of bubbles. Starting centillions of years ago ( >10⁶⁰⁰, (not US 10³⁰³)), circulation effects in the primordial matter filling space began rotating, forming a rotating body. It may have been just an electron or something far smaller, enough to start the Universe and build the first atom. Before this, no matter; no energy; no light; a dead void. On coming together the mechanisms of growth, replication and energy transfer began as rotation spread. Soon more matter formed as the Æther sprang into life with the formation of electrons, protons, neutrons and atoms. At this time, the Æther is but a convenient term. Nature was in the experimental stage, failures being recycled by the survivors. Mutual rotation at a few rps was enough to begin circulating the Æther and initiate the magnetic field. With this Æther field flow, Matter began to attract other matter magnetically clumping into a swirling cloud, carried along with the flow as rotational and magnetic forces grew larger and larger. As matter aligned to the magnetic fields of other matter, the magnetic field also prevented matter from getting too close.

The circulating magnetic field gave matter a means to seek out matter. As a mechanical solution, the input field of one atom is attracted to the exhaust of another atom. In close proximity, atoms link in a mutual feedback exchange, where the output of one atom feeds the next atom's input only to supply an output that the first atom uses to return to the second atom in a mutual circular feedback loop. This initiates a natural self-sustaining resonance and precise system responses times. It also creates other situations, attracting matter to itself. The closer the proximity of matter, the greater the mutual feedback and throughput, as well as increasing the force of repulsion to neighbouring molecules.

Rapidly, matter took hold in the Universe, with the consequence of increasing the feedback situation. This is seen as increases in temperature, pressure and gravity. With this came Nature's mechanical weaknesses where the atomic-molecular structure either failed or involved a simple mechanical modification. Reaction products of these failures, neutrons combined with successful Hydrogen atoms to fashion far more elaborate mechanical survivors with completely different attributes and magnetic properties. The neutron is an inspired failure that became a fantastic survivor. With the neutron, the mechanical efficiency and longevity of larger atomic structures increased. Soon, the population of the larger Helium atoms began to create even larger atoms Lithium, Beryllium, Boron, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Fluorine. With the formation of heavier atoms, chemical reactions occurred with the fundamental Hydrogen atom.

The optimum mechanical efficiency and magnetic transfer began to limit the size of the more massive atoms, as Nature's mechanisms reached the fundamental limits. There would be very few atomic survivors above element 74 (Tungsten) in the periodic table, perhaps twenty isotopes that exhibited reasonable longevity, so few good survivors (Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Tl, Pb, Bi, Th, Pa and U.)

Nature didn't plan the strangest step of all, rather geometry and mechanical efficiency came into play making several elementary survivors that didn't seem to react with any other atom. As the Universal came together, excessive quantities of these waste products, (Helium, Neon, Argon) the inert gasses were produced. Chemical bonding and pressure had allowed larger atoms to be pressed together, forming more massive atoms, but not these resilient and uncompromising independent structures that resisted all attempts to break them up.

With the extraodinary pressure, atomic feedback became so excessive, the rotational energy limits were reached, throwing electrons from the atomic structure. The altered magnetic structures resonated with collapse and expansion. Having the magnetic shield weakened, other atoms in the pressurised environment rapidly combine, with such force both atomic structures shatter, exploding on impact, releasing their rotational energy into the surrounding matter to begin a chain of thermonuclear events. If unsustained, the reaction spreads, returning all matter to the nuclear soup condition.

This was no big bang, rather a single star had ignited, lighting up the universe. A light that would never be seen. As the amount of matter accumulated began to add to the star's mass and size Coriolis effects and convectional cell structural changes slowed the rotating star while it fluctuated between being magnetic and diamagnetic. It would have done so with massive fluctuations in brightness. But with each change, more matter from the surrounding environment was dragged poured into the body. Having already reached galactic proportions, the super star's slow rotation and intense magnetic field began to work, adding to the mass by actively attracting all surrounding matter. Due to the rotating atmosphere matter falling into the object would add rotational energy causing the core to spin faster. Effectively, the mass would be slowing and receiving small increases in energy as gravitational potential difference is converted into rotational energy.

The initial rotation did not need to be very great, however with greater radius, the slow down from several thousand rps to one revolution every hundred thousand million years was taking place. This is not a situation of being apparently stopped, rather, conservation of rotational energy, nuclear excitement, and Coriolis cells have actively accelerated matter to rotational tip speeds, perhaps half the speed of light. This is no simple galaxy, rather it has become an Extra Massive Super Active Galaxy. With no more matter available, the EMSAG begins to slow. Changes are taking place within the Coriolis structure that allow the equatorial convection cells to extend outwards. The high centripetal force overcome the rotation return path routes, so that galactic sized matter is spun off along the equatorial plane.

In terms of galactic age, the EMSAG reached maturity giving birth as a mother, perhaps a centillion years ago. Her children, great blobs of galactic size matter, thrown off around the equatorial region against the amazing pull of gravity. This is a consequence of the Coriolis effect, where the hemispheres produce an odd numbered cell. Suppose one hemisphere has 6 cells and the other has 7 cells, the partial or seventh cell will be pushed from the structure and ejected, to be broken up or to form an equatorial expansion, This is a new pair of cells existing above the tropical layers.

These extended cells will produce sympathetic Eddy cells in the temperate region. As more matter is ejected on the equator, the size of the equatorial disk increases as more cells appear. Layer upon layer, intermittent shedding of Coriolis cells creates a segmented series of rings that may escape the gravitational pull of the parent, having velocities that are slower than orbital velocity, so they migrate to a greater orbital height.

As an object accelerates under the force of gravity, its orbital height is said to decay as the altitude decreases. To maintain orbit, or escape orbit, means slowing down. This is in total agreement with Newtonian physics. Many 'blackhole believers' have the wrong concept of velocity of escape and escape velocity. The escape velocity pertains to the orbital velocity at a particular altitude, where to escape that orbit means to travel at a greater or lesser speed. A greater speed reduces orbital height, while a decreased speed increases orbital height. The mathematics are so clear on this fact that one is really led to wonder about the credentials of those teaching the subject. The velocity of escape is any velocity where the force exerted is above the force of gravity. A hot air balloon rises because the buoyancy gives that balloon the force greater than 'g'. An elevator rises because the force exerted is greater than the force of gravity. If an elevator was rising at 1 metre per second, would leave the Earth's atmosphere in 36 hours, and escape the Earth's gravitational pull after travelling for 15 years to reach an altitude of 5,000,000 Km. To give an indication of foolishness, examine the orbital speeds of the planets. According to "blackhole theory" the escape speed must exceed the escape velocity of the event horizon, that being 'c'. So, if the following figures are to be believed, then something travelling faster than light at the event horizon must plunge into the blackhole, while anything travelling slower, escapes with the greatest of ease. The following simplified mathematics categorically identifies the fact:- the solar escape velocity decreases with increasing radius from the Sun. Promoters of the blackhole theory should hang their heads in shame, for pushing falsehoods treated as fact on a gullible and unsuspecting public.

Name	Orbital radius Million miles	C = 2 . r in miles	Sidereal period in hours	mean orbital velocity miles per hour
Mercury	35.96	225,943,153	2,111	107,031.337
Venus	67.20	422,229,696	5,393	78,292.174
Earth	92.9	583,707,422	8,766.14	66,586.59
Mars	141.6	889,698,288	16,487	53,963.079
-- Ceres ---	257.1	1,615,405,587	40,331	40,053.69
Jupiter	483.3	3,037 million	103,911	29,227
Saturn	886.2	5,568 million	258,420	21,546
Uranus	1783	11,202 million	735,840	15,223
Neptune	2794	17,555 million	1,445,400	12,145
Pluto	3670	23,059 million	2,172,480	10,614

THE SOLAR ESCAPE VELOCITIES FOR THE PLANETS

Having reached sufficient centrifugal force, the 'odd' equatorial Coriolis cell will be abandoned, in clumps, uplifted and pushed away by lower Coriolis cells, to reach an orbital height where it can escape the gravitational clutches of the giant. As this cell peels away under the pressure of lower cells, in time, it would become part of a massive river of small galactic masses around the EMSAG's core, (appearing somewhat like a spiral galaxy, but on a much greater, grander scale). This would not be a continuous outpouring, rather it would be an irregular patchwork appearing from within much like the galaxy, with web structures, massive gaps, then more webs. This is all explained through Coriolis effects.

Each of the EMSAG's children will have precise characteristics at birth depending on the amount of matter and rotational speed. Composed of nuclear soup, these young baby active galaxies would either become magnetic or diamagnetic. Along this equatorial plane, magnet offspring would become cannibals, flying about devouring their siblings, rapidly growing in size. With sufficient rotation and magnetic polarity, they began to propel themselves seeking out matter. This action of the PacMan galaxy is not an intentional act, rather it is an effect of matter being attracted to other matter through magnetic and gravitational means. It is mindless matter's unthinking blind cannibalism. A combined radio-optical image of Centaurus-A shows such a beast in full flight.

Some of their siblings when born, had sufficient rotational attributes and magnetic properties to give birth to stars and planetary systems. Others would fly off aligned to the diamagnetic field of the parent EMSAG, travelling outward along the equatorial plane, leaving trails of exhaust stars. On a much smaller scale, the sibling galaxies imitate the parent, spinning nuclear soup from the equatorial regions as Coriolis cells break away, themselves giving birth to clumps of matter surrounded by the gaseous nebula of the abandoned Coriolis cell.

At this point, there are several theories on the origin of the Solar System that need to be examined. The Laplace model begins with a spinning cloud of gas that flattened and attenuated along the Solar equatorial plane to form the planets, all of which orbit the Sun in the same direction, all with the same rotational alignment, so that each planetary axis is parallel to the Solar axis. Similarly, each Moon system will replicate the structure of the solar system. Although this theory sits quite well in explaining many of the observed regularities in the Solar System, it had great difficulty explaining the distribution of both angular momentum and elements. Some said it falls over because Uranus and its moon system were found to have an axial tilt of 95°.

The next theory suggests a fly-by where the Sun and another star had a near-miss close encounter. The tidal effect pulled the terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon and Mars) from the Sun, while the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) streamed from the other star. This explained the distribution and rotation quite nicely but failed to explain-away the strange Titus Bodes' orbital relationship. Nineteenth Century theorists, in trying to explain the spacing of almost circular orbits of the planets from the Sun found the following mathematical model. Start with this doubling sequence of numbers,

It was obvious that there was some logical link, but no single logical theory could explain the distribution of matter or angular momentum. To explain the Solar System and the presence of the heavy elements on the Earth, another theory came to the fore. Because the Laplace model could not explain the distribution of rotational energy and mass, the next theory suggested the parent being the Sun. In this model, the solar rotation decreases rapidly as matter is spun-off and along the equatorial plane. As each atom has mass, then the heavy atoms and molecules will only be thrown a certain distance before they are pulled back into the clutches of the Sun. Starting with a generalised Gaussian distribution curve, and assuming that this curve represented the initial energy outpouring given to matter, there would be a gravitational separation of matter, heaviest near the Sun and lightest further out. Because there is more Hydrogen and Helium in the Sun than any other element, they would travel the greatest distance when expelled, The Solar System would take on an attenuated Gaussian distribution for each atomic mass. As the star bursts into life, the lighter materials would be blown from the closer bodies, leaving the heavy silica cores. The theory explains a great deal, but fails to explain the Moon systems of the gas giants. This strange picture of the Solar System is observed. The heavy terrestrial planets, then the asteroid belt, with the rapidly spinning gas giants, all existing on the same plane.

To some, as the big bang is the only theory, the big picture must be related to the small picture. Starting with a presumption of fact, the theory develops around dangerous logic. Care must be exercised because this theory is blindly accepted by many people as "the only possible explanation" due in part to propaganda. This theory says "because the heavy elements found on the Earth can only have been created through a super nova explosion, then the Solar System must have developed from the remnants of a Super Nova." This presumption denies Nature the basic tools to make heavy elements, apart from this one exclusive mechanism now attributed to the Super Nova. Such a narrow and deluded mind-set needs to be expanded and the deluded theory scrapped. Presenting such theory as the current scientific belief is no more than propaganda, regurgitated by believers without a basic appreciation of Nature, Astronomy or the Solar System. The spectacular super nova speculation appeals to many who just don't know any better. It is an ill-conceived erroneous throw away line without justification or basis. As there are so many conceptual errors, one should be amazed when any astronomer supports this crazy half-baked notion. It answers nothing and leaves too many unanswered questions.

In essence, the theory fails to explain the subsequent formation, distribution and properties, structure and regularities of both Solar and planetary systems. It fails to address fundamental issues, mechanisms and processes that return the explosive nebula as a highly ordered structured system. To help explain why this is the best theory to-date, some disciples call on uncertainty and chaos theory. As Nature has methods of making heavy elements locally, that to state "we are made of the stuff from a super nova" is deluded and deceptive propaganda, having popular appeal. This theory gives the insignificant and unlikely a degree of significance and probability.

• There is no evidence of such an explosion, nor is there any evidence of some past close stellar encounter.
• The Sun is a Fission-Fusion device capable of making heavy elements. The solar spectrum shows over 10,000 spectral lines from more than 250 isotopes.
• The greatest concentration of heavy elements found on the Earth exists in continental shield deposits, when the earliest known ancient magmas solidified. So slowly did the magma cool during pre-Precambrian times, gravitational differentiation stratified the magma into ore deposits, (heaviest at base to lightest on top).
• Heavy elements are often found in metamorphic and magmatic deposits associated with geosynclinal action and pressurised vulcanism.
• There are regular relationships and structures found throughout the Solar System, far too many to suggest other than a common formation as a consequence of one event.

There is a great deal of evidence to suggest a basic theory that allows predictions to be made with considerable accuracy. This can be achieved when the Laplace model is combined with the solar spin-off or accretion theory, the Coriolis model of wind structures, knowledge of matter, magnetism and rotation. Starting with the equatorial spin-off model, magnetism and rotational effects can be applied at the atomic and cumulative levels to the rotating ball of nuclear soup spun off by the galaxy. At the atomic level, just as the coffee cup experiment links an EMSAG to the Milky Way galaxy, it also links The Milky Way Galaxy to the formation of the local star systems in the galaxy, and these star systems to planetary and moon systems. This theory that predicts galactic formation, growth and evolution, also predicts the formation of rogue objects, star clusters, stellar populations, double stars, planets, moons, asteroids, rings and comets, forward and retrograde motion, distribution of both rotational energy and the elements. In this nuclear soup, the motion of protons, electrons, and whole atoms, actively produce the magnetic field of the galaxy. Matter is affected by the magnetic fields in exactly the same way it is in Thomson's mass spectrometer. Slow moving matter in the Coriolis cells affects and is affected by the external magnetic field to produce a local magnetic field. With rotation, cells soon reach orbital velocities, at mathematically related positions. Using exactly the same mechanisms, localised spinning eddy cells in orbit around a protoplanetary system begin the moon forming sub-mechanisms. Under this theory it is possible for a planetary moon to have moons.

The Milky Way galactic core having given birth to a ball of nuclear soup, that may have the rotation and magnetic attributes to form a planetary system, or it may not. The probability of forming a planetary system is about one in three. The probability of the planetary system developing moons is much higher. To begin explaining this theory, the nuclear soup is composed of an extremely hot mass of protons, electrons and neutrons, Hydrogen and Helium. Rotation of the ball will produce differential rotational effects and the development of convective Coriolis flow structures. The ball may become magnetic or diamagnetic. A diamagnetic body has a common axial polarity, either North or South, and the other pole existing along the equatorial plane. A magnetic body has a strong axial North-South component. There are two possible magnetic bodies, those that have compatible rotation and those that do not. It is highly unlikely that a rotating nuclear soup mass will develop without presenting some magnetic polarity.

Travelling outward from the galaxy's core, rotation and convectional cells in the spinning nuclear soup, flattened and aligned the disk into a magnetic protoplanetary star system, that began to respond to the prevailing magnetic conditions. As the Laplace model appears, so does the spinning accretion theory as matter is sorted along the equatorial plane as two types of object begin to form. In the rotating disk, the Eddy cells formed between cells would exhibit either forward or reverse axial rotation. This will either form a planet with forward rotation (night side travelling faster than orbital speed) or objects that have little axial rotation. Moon systems will only survive if they develop in the forward rotating cells, otherwise orbital parameters may not be achieved. This theory predicts retrograde and captured rotation where Eddy bearing cells between major convective Coriolis cells become the point of planetary or moon growth. Such planets and moons would present captured or reverse rotation, with the day side either fixed or travelling faster than the night side.

To consider a Coriolis cell as being a two turn electromagnet, gives one a better appreciation of how matter's alignment and wind speed produce planetary magnetic fields. To some Venus is a dead hostile planet, having an inhospitable atmosphere, high temperatures and sulphuric acid rain. As the planet is in captured rotation, its atmosphere has the simplest Coriolis wind structure, one cell per hemisphere. On the Sun side of the planet, the atmosphere at the equator will be super heated and rise. At the midnight position, freezing high level atmosphere would return to the surface. This situation is upset by the rotational attributes. Although the planet's rotation seems negligible.

Planetary rotation, no matter how small, is relative to both the local environment and the Universal stationary position. As Venus would experience a slow moving equatorial hot spot, Coriolis plays a massive role in shaping the prevailing Venusian weather. Although this explanation starts with a static and stationary object describing one set of conditions, it will conclude with a rotational description more in keeping with the actual environment. The column of hot rising atmosphere travels vertically only a short distance before radiating in all directions. The rising gasses create a back pressure, forcing matter to travel around the planet at high altitude and return from the midnight down draft position across the surface of the planet. The high level winds disperse matter around the equator and over the poles to reach the midnight downdraft position, to concentrate, chill, disperse and slowly warm racing progressively over the surface of the planet.

As the high altitude winds travel from a region of higher rotation towards the pole, they spiral ahead of the planet to form a polar vortex, a sympathetic rotating polar downdraft. Each cell could be represented as a coil wound on an iron bar to form an electromagnet. There would be a single one turn of wire at each end, representing the polar current in each hemisphere. To avoid complications with the supply current make each coil 100 turns. Since these currents in these cells are flowing in the same direction, the coils need to be wired in parallel. As the wind races back across the surface falling behind the rotation, the cold atmosphere pushes the atmosphere over the limb into the sunlight where warming occurs as the wind speed picks up, travelling across the surface and towards the equatorial updraft position. The rapidly spiralling atmospheric mass is accelerated by the hot spot conditions and forced back to the poles at the equator. The winds are travelling around the planet, more as a banana spiral, from the tips to the equator. Relative position and minor rotation have established a unique circulation cell in each hemisphere that is travelling faster than the rotation of the planet. Around the bar magnet's central region, wind another pair of 100 turn coils. To ensure that the electrical currents are travelling in same direction but opposite to the polar coils, connect the central coils in series and then connect this circuit to the parallel connected polar circuit as illustrated in figure 23-1. The banana spiral does not have the polar downdrafts occurring immediately above the poles, rather, they would be offset to the poles and midnight position at a high latitude.

Figure 23-1 A one cell per hemisphere Coriolis magnetic field generator.

The magnetic field produced by this electromagnet is very interesting when displayed with iron filings or photocopier toner sprinkled onto a sheet of paper above the working electromagnet. As a continuation of this experiment, play with the circuit. The basic rule as defined by Nature is that the currents in opposite hemispheres are deflected in the same direction with respect to the axis of rotation. At the very end of Chapter 11 (Astronomical Magnetism) reference was made to library works. The reference material from A.H. Strahler's magnificent work, "Introduction to Physical Geography" figure 4-10 gives one a better idea of how this rule is applied. In the illustration above, each magnetic coil carries the same number or electrons, though the equatorial resistance is increased by the series connection.
Modification to the experiment:-

• Try the other possible series-parallel connections, where the polar regions are series connected to the tropical region series connected.
• Connect the equatorial coils in parallel, and the polar coils in series.

Cover the complex coil structure with a sheet of paper, apply a voltage and sprinkle iron filings. (If one wishes to preserve an Iron filing image, coat the sheet of paper with an even layer of candle wax. After performing any experiment on the waxed surface, without disturbing the sheet, use a bar radiator to melt the wax. When cold, the solidified wax will retain the delicate magnetic field image for many years without rusting.)

From the diameter and rotational speed of Mars, the prediction is made that its planetary magnetic field is derived from the action of four mantle cells, that is two per hemisphere, a polar and tropical cell. There are only two possible flow pattens. At both the poles and at the equator, there is either an up-draft or a downdraft. The converse applies to the mid-latitude convergence zone, so that if pole and equator are updrafts, the convergence zone must be a down-draft. Use Strahler's figure 4-10 to simulate the structure using latitude 45 rather as the convergence zone rather than Strahler's Earth description of latitude 30. This will give one an appreciation of the magnetic field structure predicted.

Just as the Earth's overburden was simulated using American silver dollars, to filter and blur the magnetic image as does the crust and atmosphere, there are several images found in the library from S. Chapman's "The Earth's magnetism" to examine. These show the isogonic (equal declination), isoporic (equal annual changes), isoclinic (equal dip) and isomagnetic (equal field strength) maps for 1922. They may be old, but that was the Earth in 1922, and any researcher today should be able to source present day maps to see the amazing differences. Some locations have dramatically changed, while others have remained relatively stable for years.

Soon after Dr. William Gilbert (1600) proved the Earth to be a magnet, Gellibrand in 1634 realised that the magnetic declination was changing. Having scanty records from 1540, since 1634, the observed magnetic inclination changes hold the record for the longest documented scientific observations. The London records indicate a cyclic period of 480 years, making the year 2020 the completion of the first full cycle. As pointed out by Chapman, this cycle is known to change from site to site around the planet. There are things floating in the mantle that alter the direction of magnetic North, meteorites and massive chunks of recycled continents and sea floor.

These charts tell a great deal more about the Earth's Coriolis magnetic field generator. Analysis by Chapman and others of isoporic maps revealed that for the previous century the Earth's magnetic field had been steadily weakening. In this 1936 work, Chapman points out that geologist had looked for evidence of major magnetic deviations using lava bed deposits but obtained negative results. The conclusion drawn then was one of continual and non-changing magnetic polarity. It would not be until the mid-1960's that technology and experimental procedural changes identified a picture of regular magnetic reversals throughout geological history. Plate tectonics and continental drift can all be related and explained by Coriolis circulation in the Earth's mantle.

The Solar magnetic field and that of the protoplanetary nebula are going to do some extraordinary things in the planetary formation mechanisms. Illustrated below, figure 23.2 shows the predicted Solar Coriolis magnetic field of the quiet Sun. From Mercury to the asteroid belts a weak equatorial field would be evidenced, however, at around the position of Jupiter, the stronger magnetic field in the confines of the parent Milky Way Galaxy, soon after birth, would have spun magnetic material very rapidly, forming concentrated, fast spinning Eddy cells. The protoplanetary system drifting away from the galaxy, began to twist to the prevailing galactic magnetic conditions, as the magnetic field expanded. At this vital time in the formation process, as the inclination of the Solar System's was twisting, planets and their moon systems were solidifying in the Coriolis structured nuclear soup protoplanetary disk. Figure 23-3.

These simple descriptions and illustrations identify the most probable mechanisms that hold a spinning nebulous disk intact against forces that should tear it apart. These Coriolis mechanisms effectively limit the size and shape of the rapidly disk compacting it into a ball at high rotational speeds. At maximum rotation a galaxy or protoplanetary nebula would take on a cigar shape. The mathematics of the Galaxy, Solar System and moon systems are the same. The picture of non-rotating and double objects, such as Alpha-Centauri and the Earth-Moon becomes obvious in such an environment, where more than one object forms in a discarded Coriolis cell.

Deposition of matter in both rotating and non-rotating Eddy cells produce active and non-active objects. If rotating, a body the size of the Moon could remain active due to the conversion of rotational energy into magmatic heat. Probably, the Moon originated between Venus and the Earth, to be captured by a near-miss encounter. An unequal distribution of mass in the Moon turned it to permanently face the Earth as the two approached. The Earth became the Moon's protector, greatly reducing the number of impact events on the captured face, preserving an ancient topography in the Earth's permanent shadow. The Moon's exposed side has since been peppered with impact events.

The four fundamental building blocks upon which this theory is based have been

• rotation,
• magnetism,
• mechanical matter
• relative position

F ma

As for photographic proof of blackholes, digital images digitally processed can be created in such a way that the expression SFX (Special effects) is the only term to be applied. One must be very sceptical of colour exaggerated images presented as bona-fide scientific evidence. The scientific method demands that observational results be reproducible, over and over again, and not subject to technological and experimental tampering. Over saturation of an optically sensitive surface will create an image that could be used as proof. There are such claimed images on the Internet, where the bright central image becomes a negative image, so the object appears as a disk with a black centre.

The confusion arising from an incorrect model of matter, led science on a path that accepts deluded notions as theory. When Maxwell devised his equations, he did so using the Æther theory, simply because things could be explained so well. The Æther was incorrectly believed to be something mysterious, a hypothetical medium that permeated all matter as the medium for propagation of all energy irrespective of the matter through which energy passed. This belief was seriously flawed giving many the wrong impression of matter, energy and Æther, simply because matter and energy were not understood. People accepted the Æther as being able to move through everything at the same rate its motion unopposed by matter. As the speed of light is so great, the Æther was believed to have a high rigidity. Michelson and Morley were so convinced they assumed that their experiment would work under ground. This Æther theory was blindly accepted without proof well into the Twentieth Century simply because light and radio waves could be explained. The medium could not be defined adequately using the accepted concepts of matter.

Although Einstein attempted to address the situation, he was let down on several major areas by the sciences of the day. He did not have the correct model of the atom, nor did he have the correct appreciation of matter due to a flawed chemical model. He did not have a correct view of gravity due to Newton's error. Blinded by education and an arrogant scientific theory that held Nature in contempt, things were made very difficult to explain. Simply said, Einstein was put on the wrong path by accepting the scientific theories of the day for no one knew any better.

Einstein's special theory of relativity, on the surface appears to be an anti-Æther theory, his education was Æther theory and although he made his photon a particle, to exclude any medium of propagation that would transfer the waveform, he had to make the photon a wave or packet of energy at the same time. In the General theory of relativity, light, having energy must have mass. This led the astronomer, Popper, to determine the mass of a star through the star's Red shift. Einstein's use of the Descartes theory of light, that notion accepted by Newton in 1666, further led to deluded explanations regarding colour, transparency, transmission, propagation, photo-sensitivity, reception, polarisation, etc.

When one examines Maxwell's equations today, the free-space solution of 'c' (the speed of light) one will find that it is tangled up with the standard unit of measurement, so it is that a variable speed of light will remain a constant in vacuo, where a relative fixed speed is achieved by using a fixed frequency over a short distance. The Æther theory states that over a short distance, the speed and frequency remain constant, however over greater distances, or on entering another medium, although the speed and wave length change, the frequency remains unchanged. The wavelength change being proportional to the distance travelled in the medium in a second as determined by the medium's refractive index. The refractive index is the ratio of light's speed, so that

In the vacuum, if 'c' is exactly taken as 299,792,458 m/s, and the metre is defined as the distance travelled by this particular frequency light frequency in ¹/_c seconds, then in air and across local space in the Solar System, the metre length has different lengths, unless that speed is maintained in the medium, and again assuming that there is no absorption, rejection or conversion into another frequency by the intervening medium, there will be a no shift to the red end of the spectrum.

At the same time, the Æther theory states that the greater the amount of matter and the greater the resistance, so the conservation of energy will cause light's speed to change and produce a red shift. Thus the more matter that light must travel through and the greater the resistance to that wave motion, so the greater the red shift and the faster the speed. Red travels faster than Blue light.

Some materials, due to the alignment of matter will freely allow propagation of the magnetic vibration through the medium due to the direction and freedom of the material's magnetic alignment, however, in another direction, in the same medium, the alignment may be such as to restrict the freedom so much the medium may exhibit an increased refractive index or become opaque. This is illustrated by liquid crystals and the double refraction in the Calcite crystal, (where the directions of molecular freedom of vibration give rise to perpendicular directions of magnetic polarisation, with completely different refractive indexes and propagation properties).

Equally, the atmosphere being crystalline in nature is subject to rapid aligned changes, responding to altered air movements, water and chemical content as well as the Earth's magnetic field. This actively promotes visible changes in the refractive index and a slight magnetic polarisation, especially over any reasonable line-of-sight distance.

For the speed of light to have constancy in a medium, demands that the observer is travelling at exactly the same speed, in the same direction as the medium. If the medium is moving at 100 Km/hour, then any wave form carried away from a moving observation platform will do so at the stationary speed of that energy-waveform in the in the stationary medium, in all directions from that platform, for and with respect to the medium, the moving platform and the medium are stationary.

If either the medium or platform is moving and the other is stationary, then a Doppler shift will be evident in the propagating medium, but not necessarily with respect to the inside compartments of the platform. Inside the platform, the environment is moving with the platform. However, on the surface of the platform, the relative speeds and wavelengths will be subject to the medium's velocity. The medium restricts the constancy of the energy-form's speed in the medium. A sound travelling down-wind will travel faster than a sound travelling up-wind, because the medium, although moving is stationary with respect to itself. Contrary to consensus, V/c is not dimensionless as one could presuppose, for there is a change in position with respect to a moving or stationary environment, where the velocity is c in every direction. The environment's stationary position is travelling at S_c, so when v = S_c, then c is true in all directions unless the medium's velocity is changed at a greater location (ie, perhaps outside the Earth's shock front). When v approaches c, with respect to S_c, then Doppler effects apply, so the mathematics must bring that into play. At no time does this alter time, nor does an event go faster or slower than time. Since all time is absolute, that is, |t₁-t₂|>0 , then all the ground rules are changed.

So it is that when one describes linear motion on the planet Earth, since the planet and the observation platform are in rotation around the planetary axis, and in rotation around the Sun, and in rotation around the galactic axis, the laws of linear motion become approximations owing to the fact that the curvature of the planet and orbital position are presenting an ever changing reference medium and the geometric position with respect to the rotation. The only resolution is to relate all motion at an instant to the universal stationary reference frame, bringing the mathematics back to the position of the platform.

So many mistakes were made in the foundations of the science that the early scientists had to adopt graphic explanations to describe some effect that seemed too complex to describe. Faraday was a rather simple fellow, the son of a blacksmith. At the age of 12 became an errand boy for a bookseller. He learnt the art of binding. At 21, when he should have been binding a set of encyclopedia for his master's customer, he was discovered, fascinated by the description of magnetism and electricity. The customer gave Faraday tickets to a series of lectures given by the great chemist Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday took copious notes and introduced himself to Davy. Later he bound and sent the notes to Davy who was amazed at Faraday's perception. Faraday had the rare trait of explanation. He could explain a difficult problem simply in simple English. However, some of his descriptions were so simplistic, they were wrong.

Faraday's explanations worked because the mathematics related to specific indicators. When Faraday voiced the notion of electrochemical bonding to Davy, he was right in that chemical reactions liberate electrons, but wrong because chemical bonds are magnetic. The mathematics of Valency seemed to work, because it works on the indicator of the chemical reaction products. Davy ran with the concept and in so doing infected science with a knowledge virus.

Equally, when Faraday suggested the concept of lines and tubes of magnetic force being stand alone entities, he was right in that the concentration of lines directly related to magnetic flux pressure, but he was wrong to give the line physical properties that are not true in Nature. The mathematics that Faraday began, were developed further by Laplace, Poisson, Maxwell and others during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth centuries, on foundations established by Newton. Gauss applied Newton's gravitational field theory to the Earth's magnetic field in determining the theory of magnetic potential. Gauss was right! He had built the theory on Faraday's indicator of field strength. In so doing, Gauss confirmed Gilbert's 1600 conclusions about the Earth's magnetic field. Much of the fundamental scientific mathematics are correct because the indicators are used.

As an example, the magnetic constant, ₀, comes into the definition of the unit of current, the ampere: "The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible cross section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10^-7 N/m of length." This implies that ₀ is also an exact quantity, defined as

₀ = 4 x 10^-7 N/A².

₀ x ₀ = 1 / c²,

When Einstein related gravity to acceleration, he did so using an observational illusion presenting a fundamentally flawed model of relativity. Gravity is a feedback condition between matter while the force experienced as a consequence of an acceleration is the effect of a directed applied force. The illusion is that the two forces seem to be the same, with the same physical manifestations, until one steps outside the moving reference frame. One maintains the velocity of the reference frame at exit, while the reference frame accelerates away. With gravity, two or more bodies experience a mutual force resulting from a feedback situation. As matter aligns with matter for maximum throughput, matter is attracted to matter.

Throughout Nature, there must be mechanisms and processes responsible that if used explain the very workings of Nature's Universe. Every observational illusion, indicator and scientific mystery must have a real world explanation, not based in faith or uncertainty. The differential mechanical model of the atom presented in this work is a speculation without proof, however, its use as a 3-D magnetic construct solves the fundamental errors in the valency theory, the periodic table and makes explanation of very complex chemical processes very mundane. It may be that this model is a much closer indicator of the atomic model. The scanning tunnelling electron microscope reveals matter as described by this model rather than Rutherford's electron cloud model.

There are problems caused by the inappropriate definition of energy that has clouded scientific thought. The obvious definition of energy became one of not to define energy because the problem of many energy-forms seemed insurmountable. Science accepted the Æther theory for a considerable part of scientific history because it seemed to work so well. It could explain so much without involving chaos and uncertainty. It had so much to offer, yet it failed to address the fundamental links with Nature and matter. Science placed the Æther outside Nature and placed it on a weak pedestal, as are so many of the scientific flavour-of-the-month theories today. Now is time to scrap and replace deluded scientific theory, virtually to start again, filtering through all scientific knowledge in establishing Nature's science. Nature's science does not have demarcation barriers. Nature is not clearly defined as a faculty, be it Inorganic Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Physics, Geology, Biology, Electronics, Astronomy, Metallurgy, etc. Nature encompasses all the faculties. Nature science starts with the magnetic atom and one's understanding is only limited by the technological limits of today and tomorrow.

The key to Nature's science is found in common, mundane, experiments that do not work as they should. In optical instruments there is simple diffraction. In electrolysis, there is water. In a vacuum, there is matter. Throughout Nature, there are magnetic fields. Nature can be explained simply by merely updating the Æther theory with current knowledge. This is not a re-write nor could it be described as applying patches to a deluded theory. The AD 2000 Æther theory places Nature above theory. All theory must explain Nature, and be one with Nature. There is no room for scientific arrogance, where science and theory are placed above Nature. A theory is but a theory, and should never be used as proof. The mathematics of a theory should never be consider irrefutable. Mathematics is but another language and as such, no matter what language is spoken, deception is possible and lies can be told. When Science attempts to explain Nature with the tools supplied by Nature, questions concerning Nature's Universe will be answered in full. It just may take a little time to translate the answer.

The question which Einstein and Newton failed to ask concerns the differences in the various types of energy at the atomic and molecular level. It concern how that energy is propagated, from transmission to reception, being transferred through solid matter, to cause effects in matter at enormous distances across the Universe. It concerns the mechanisms that allow light and many other magnetic vibrations travel through matter that should be impervious to such vibrations, yet through materials, such as glass, quartz, ice, calcite, mica and plastic, images can be formed. It concerns colour and reflection, diffraction, dispersion and the many forms of refraction. It concerns how a lever works at the atomic level and how the recoil of a simple cannon on a gun carriage actually moves. It concerns all motion on a rotating orbiting planet. Just as an object can be pushed or pulled, matter can be twisted, stretched or compressed. Objects can break apart due to rotation, chemical activity; atomic bombardment; fatigue; or age. There must be only one explanation for energy, not 500 unique definitions, and definitely not "energy is energy and a dimension unto itself". Energy is NOT something that directly causes a thing to move, change state of form, nor is it an ambiguous abstract without definition.

This model of Nature's innermost workings begins with a magneto-mechanical atomic device called the magnetic atom or a magnetic isotope. All atoms have magnetic properties, through which all energy is transferred as specific energy-forms. Chemical bonds are magnetic and as such, pressure, stress, strain, elasticity, convection and matter's volume requirements are intimately linked. X-rays, UV, light, heat and radio waves exist in the magnetic spectrum, transferred by radiant magnetic sheer waves (s-waves) from atom to atom by absorption and re-transmission. An optical surface is formed when the a material's interface produces an even magnetic cushion over the surface. Gravity is a matter to matter magnetic feedback effect.

Energy is a function of matter, where an event or series of events arising from matter, is transferred by matter, to causes a response or effect in other matter. Energy transferred magnetically affects and produces effects in matter depending on the energy-forms involved. The are certain parameters of each energy-form:

• magnitude,
• duration,
• compatibility,
• conversion,
• transmission,
• reception,
• secondary events
• losses
• amplification
• relativity.
• position,
• separation,
• dispersion,
• direction,
• environmental compression

Irrespective of the nature of the energy-form or its magnitude, an energy-form is Nature's means of transferring the reaction from an event in matter, to other matter, through matter, to affect and cause effects in other matter at the atomic level through specific magnetic mechanisms and processes (involving atomic magnetic throughput, resonance, vibration, pressure and position). This includes energy-forms resulting from chemical and nuclear reactions, magnetic interaction, mechanical action (stress, compression, rotation, pressure, expansion, movement, impact, lift, drag, friction etc.). The initial magnitude of the energy-form being dependent on the nature of the energy-form and the number of reactions that took place during a time frame. As the energy-form spreads into the surrounding environment, the aspects of matter in that environment are changed as the energy-form is absorbed and on-passed, or rejected. With absorption, the affected matter responds and on-passes the energy-form to other matter magnetically, as a continuation of that energy-form, or as a different energy-form when an energy conversion event takes place. At the atomic level, matter responds to different energy-forms at different rates of energy transfer.

The application of an energy-form to matter may result in the production of secondary and spurious energy-forms, promoting other reactions. The energy-form applied to a system may prevoke a response from the system, liberating more energy than put into the system by the primary action. In Chemistry this is described as the threshhold energy. When coal gas and Oxygen are mixed, the explosive reaction will not occur until certain conditions are met. To promote the reaction, the mixture could be rapidly compressed, forcing changed molecular alignment that results in a spontaneous change throughout the mixture breaking and creating new chemical bonds. Another method to produce the necessary alignment change would be through electrolysis, by applying an electric potential between two or more electrodes in contact with the mixture. As electrons migrate onto the coal gas and Oxygen molecules, the magnetic alignment of the mixtrure is changed causing a molecular wind between the electrodes. The voltage needed to initiate the spontaneous reaction is dependent on the separation of the molecules (ie. pressure). Equally, heating the explosive mixture could trigger the spontaneous reaction. Molecular alignment can be achieved without applying any energy. Exposing the explosive mixture to a platinum wire catalyst may produce the necessary critical alignment to explode the gas. Further, to this alignment is the example of a liquid propane cigarette lighter. As the propane mixes with the air and burns, a low temperature yellow-orange flame forms. If a small platinum wire screen is placed at the mixing point of the flame, the dynamics of the mixing process and altered molecular alignments produce an intensified high temperature reaction with a noisy blue flame. The reaction is so intense, the flame has precise spectral lines.

In the above chemical examples, several different energy-forms and energy-form conversions are realised. As the propane burns in Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Carbon Monoxide and water vapour are produced. As the propane breaks apart, the molecules formed have different space and alignment requirements. As the magnetic field of propane collapses, the new magnetic fields of the fresh molecules establish and reverberate, transmit an energy-form indicative of the reaction speed. The yellow flame is a broad-spectrum irregular magnetic energy-form that is propagated at the speed of light. The expansion of the propane and Oxygen into the reaction products is limited by both the alignment of the surrounding medium and its viscosity, that is, its ability to align, move, transfer and to supply Oxygen to the flame. The expansion also produces a sound owing to the change in pressure as the magnetic fields establish. When the gasses are pre-mixed and directed with the correct alignment, the rate of reaction is intensified, where the expansion and reaction intensity gives off greater audio and optical properties. As the change in pressure is one energy-form, so another is the change in reaction temperature. To discuss all the energy-forms in the above examples could take twenty thousand words and a great deal of impressive mathematics because Nature is so simple at the process level, so many complex interactions are produced as each molecule is formed and as the magnetic field establishes, reverberates, the the surrounding environment responds causing more alignment changes and passes-on the energy forms. At this point, many other magnetic and electrical effects (other energy-forms) in the flame and surrounding matter have not been considered. That is left for the advanced reader to research.

Energy-forms exist as combinations and variations of primary forms of energy, as distinct from the energy-forms. The forms of energy have banner headings that include radiant, resonant, vibrational, nuclear, chemical, biological, mechanical, geological, and astronomical. There are many other banner headings. At the fundamental process level, all energy is stored as rotational energy in the atom. Elpron rotation produces the magnetic field and that field responds to changes in pressure and throughput, effectively changing the the rotational speed or field shape.

Energy applied to the magnetic fields of matter causes a response in matter, so it is that energy is transferred through matter as magnetic forms. This is the foundation to the AD 2000 Æther model. The Æther is not a distinct hypothetical fluid that fills the Universe, rather it is the magnetic fields of individuals atoms and molecules. The Æther responds to changes in pressure, temperature, throughput, resonance, vibration and positional change. It allows mindless matter to communicate and seek out matter. It promotes or retards chemical and nuclear reactions.

There is more than enough evidence to state that Kepler was absolutely correct in suggesting the concept of "The Music of the Spheres", the sound created by the planets as they move through the Æther. The Æther is magnetic matter and the planets move through matter in the Solar Wind. Space craft to distant planets have shown that every planet and every moon possess a shock front and tail in the solar wind. The Earth and Jupiter have massive Van Allen radiation belts in the shock front. So it must be that the planets do make noises in the microwave and radio regions of the magnetic spectrum, noises that would be detectable when the tail of one planet or its moon crosses the other object's shock front, causing a local disruption to the shock-front. The subsequent radio emission should be detectable after a lunar or total solar eclipse, because the solar wind travels at a much slower speed than light. As the shadow of the Jovian moons travel across Jupiter's surface, strong radio signals are detected.

Rotational energy is the fundamental storage mechanism of potential energy for all forms of energy (including chemical, gravity and light). The higher the potential energy, the greater the rotational speed of the elprons in the material. An opaque atom or molecule, when sufficiently excited or aligned may become transparent to light. As graphite, Carbon exists in an opaque molecular matrix. As a diamond, Carbon is transparent. As anhydrous Calcium Carbonate, the material is opaque, and becomes transparent when aligned by water molecules in the Calcite crystal. The transparent Calcite crystal can exist in one of two different structures related to the molecular magnetic field strengths at the time of formation. Similarly, when the external magnetic field changes during crystal growth, it can affect and influence the growth of crystals, as evidenced by magmatic spiral garnet.

As the interstellar medium, solar corona, atmosphere and many solids are transparent to light, each must have a rate of dispersion and a refractive index range, as does optical glass. Despite persistent claims of gravitational lenses proving Einstein's General theory of Relativity, light is not gravitationally affected nor is it influenced by gravity. All the claimed proofs result from observational illusions produced by matter being affected by gravity. As matter concentrates throgh gravity, the refractive index of that matter increases, so it is that the larger gravitational bodies with enormous atmospheres will produce dispersion effects in the refractive medium thus giving the appearance of gravitationally affected light and other magnetic radiations. This may cause a reversed dispersion effect as illustrated with the Crab Nebula Pulsar. Light disperse from the shock front of the cloud increases in velocity at different rates, resulting in a descending whistle, rather than an ascending whistle.

Every isotope and its molecules possess a characteristic magnetic signiture and standing state alignment in a gravitational magnetic field environment. This is consequence of magnetic flux throughput and resonance with respect to each atomic structure (this also gives a molecule its fundamental properties). In the crystalline matrix of the greater medium (the atmosphere) this alignment will be such that the greatest magnetic throughput will be achieved. When the greater environment is forced to align differently, it will produce an effect greater than the force of gravity at the local atomic and molecular level. On mass, a collective group of aligned moving molecules could produce such a force that massive objects are blown about by the wind. Equally, a specific alignment of one type of matter in the greater environment will align the greater environment to fascilitate a reaction taking place, while other matter (that should become highly reactive at the temperatures reached) remains inert. A flame that involves burning Oxygen attracts Oxygen to the fire, while one that involves burning Nitrogen attracts Nitrogen. An Oxygen base fire may be extinguished by forcing the atmosphere to align differently, (by applying an electric potential to create a radio valve effect) or it could be extinguished by burning atmospheric Nitrogen. The latter is not recommended owing to the explosive nature of Nitroogen reactions in a Nitrogen rich atmosphere. A dangerous experiment that can reveals the same effect in an Oxygen rich environment involves burning a small piece of paper inside a sealed transparent Oxygen filled flask. The paper will explosively burn when ignited by focussing the rays of the Sun onto the paper. The explosion could shatter the flask.

Irrespective of the nature of a reaction or an event in matter giving rise to an energy-form, a distinction must be drawn as to the available reaction energy and the total potential energy. The total potential energy is the sum of all energies stored in an atom, as mechanical energy with reference to the universal stationary position. This includes the rotational energy developed in response to the prevailing magnetic pressure and throughput, the nuclear and chemical binding energies, chemical magnetic stress, and positional energy. Any reaction will only release or absorb a certain quantity of energy as usable energy-forms unless the reaction involves the total annihilation of all chemical and nuclear bonds. Such an event would immediately cause a magnetic collapse, followed by the formation of Hydrogen atoms. Freed protons and electrons would re-form as elprons, which in re-establishing have greater volume requirements as their magnetic fields reverberate and stabilise. The released neutrons attack and shatter other matter furthering the energy released in the total reaction. Effectively, the equation E =mc² pales into insignificance when the total energy of a system is considered. Added to this is positional energy whereby the Earth's rotation, orbital speed and motion around the galaxy, increase the energy released when a mass comes to an abrupt and shattering stop.

The energy released from a chemical or physical reaction is the available energy above the environmental energy. As this is a relative factor, it is an illusion with physical manifestations. Calibration to standard temperature, pressure and volume means that the results are meaningful indicators. In relative terms, a chemical reaction liberates only a small amount of energy during the collapse and expansion of magnetic fields. A chemical reaction can also demonstrate reactions that present a drag on the local environment effectively robbing energy as the elprons spin-up in speed to match the environmental throughput. Such is the nature of a true endothermic reaction. When the products from an endothermic reaction break apart, the liberated components experience a corresponding spin-down after a rapid field volume expansion before efficiency returns. This means that the reaction products increase environmental throughput, increasing the environment's quiescent energy state.

When atoms are forced together through endothermic processes, energy is stored in forming the larger mechanical structures. Technically, when a chain reaction occurs, the energy released by 2.5 Kg of Uranium is not that great, equivalent to about 40 Kilotons of TNT. Many people wrongfully believe that the Hydrogen Bomb gives out more energy because it is like the Sun and fusion occurs. This belief is spread by people who should know better. The Hydrogen Implosion Bomb is mechanically a cost effective environmental killer. The deuterium in the bomb's core will not spontaneously explode. To force the nuclear reaction, several trigger devices surround the central deuterium core. Almost any material can pe placed in this core. When all the triggers explode simultaneously, fissionable materials break as they would in a 40 Kiloton event. By design, the simultaneous blast of three or more 40 Kiloton devises around the central core shatters the core into nuclear bullets that attack the remaining products from the fission reactions. At this point, each Uranium 235 atom becomes 235 nuclear bullets, of which 92 will have space requirements. These bullets race outward producing fission and fusion events in the molecules of the atmosphere and the local environment. The collapse of matter, followed by the increased space requirements results in the nuclear bombs dynamic shock wave. Such cost effective bombs explode the environment, where millions of tons of matter is annihilated, through chemical and nuclear destruction in a classic over-kill example of military madness "Kill the enemy and destroy the environment forever. Its only a war.".

Energy-forms affect and cause effects in other matter, from minor magnetic vibrations to major changes in motion (position & rotation), composition (atomic & chemical), activity (temperature, pressure and throughput) etc. As an energy-form may not be compatible to an environment, the energy-form could be rejected, absorbed or converted into one or more secondary energy-forms. (Examples: strong audio resonance may cause an object to move or rotate. Audio resonance is one energy-form while motion is another. A weak audio resonance may be absorbed or rejected by a resilient of diffuse object. Equally, resonance may be cancelled, absorbed or amplified by an object.)

Events may be controlled and sustainable (as in a power circuit where many events are directed during a time frame) or the event may be short lived (resulting from an impact or spontaneous reaction). Each energy-form will have characteristic properties that produce specific responses as secondary energy-forms depending on the relative magnitude of the event.

A force is the available potential application of a campatible energy-form. It may be directed or radiant. The force may of may not be able to be applied to work until the force is applied as an energy-form that can be converted into mechanical energy as a resolved force. An example of a non-resolved force is pressure, however, if the pressure is applied and mechanically directed, the energy-forms made available can do work. Chemical Enthalpy is the available energy resulting from a chemical reaction, that may or may not be applied to do work. Enthalpy is the total energy released and absorbed as heat, pressure and electron exchange when chemical bonds break and form during a reaction. Work includes such events and mechanisms that produce changes in velocity, activity, position and rotation of matter.

Atomic magnetic fields that carry energy from the planet's surface to deep underground are fixed atomically to a relative axial position on this rotating, orbiting planet. If energy is added at the surface or from the mantle below, magnetic throughput, vibration and resonance transfer that signal throughout the matter over a period of time, depending on the magnitude and duration of energy-form applied at that site.

There are several unique mechanisms driving the processes involved where energy transference occurs at different rates speeds and intensities. The level of activity in matter (the potential energy) refers to the total energy in matter or specifically to rotational forces, magnetic strength, chemical energy, binding energy etc. Matter existing in the Universe influences all other matter through the magnetic field of matter and by its presence impinging on other magnetic fields. Each atom exhibits precise magnetic properties at certain potential energy levels due to the distribution of elprons and field break-out zones.

Return to Table of Contents
Return to HOME PAGE
Forward to The Final Chapter
Return to Twenty Two

It was reported on April first 2000, in the Sydney Morning Herald that astronomers had discovered evidence of a previous reverberation, another noise that predate the moment of the Big Bang by a few seconds.

This startling discovery, Column Eight reported, Australian astronomers described the event as a low frequency sound.

Astronomers said the structure of the sound is almost identical to the expression, 'Oh Bugger!' :-)

Return to Text

Examples of magnetic coins illustrated below include Zimbabwi 1c, People's Republic of China 1 Yuan, ? 50, a counterfeit Hong Kong dollar, Nederland 1G)

Magnetic coins. The copper coin from Zimbabwi is strongly magnetic.

Return to text

The magnetic field can be used to examine many other concepts. This wax image, made in 1967, for a science project, is one such example. Click on the partial image to see full image. The experiment needs no description apart from an atomic simulation. The image tells a fascinating story that a researcher should be able to explain using the Æther theory.

Return to text