UNEMPLOYMENT. (From employ: OFr. employer, emploier; L. implicare, to enfold, engage; in, in, and plicare, to fold). Lack of work, involuntary joblessness. A social phenomenon provoked by natural or social disasters and present in virtually all societies and cultures with very few exceptions. Affecting a part of the population that is able to work but cannot find socially necessary employment in order to receive its part of the social product, with which to sustain itself and those family members unable to work. This unjust situation comes about when human beings do not have access to the means of production and cannot acquire on their own the knowledge and skills that would allow them to apply their capabilities. In societies based on agriculture or fishing u., arises as a result of monopoly ownership of arable land, pasture, livestock, or fishing boats and access to water. In industrial society it occurs during so-called crises of overproduction.

Democratic states with progressive labor laws have employment services and unemployment insurance or funds, which pay benefits while the unemployed seek work. They also have services for retraining that allow the unemployed to acquire a new skill, trade, or profession. While these state measures and union practices against u. alleviate the situation of the unemployed, they do not bring an end to the scourge of u.

There are, in addition to various forms of complete u., other forms of partial u. that occur when workers have only part-time work or are given extended furlough, time off, or vacation with minimal pay. In many cases companies circumvent labor laws by hiring workers for short periods or less than full time to avoid paying unemployment insurance and benefits, in this way effectively violating the rights of the unemployed. There are other hidden forms of u., especially in rural areas, where there are fewer unemployment services and benefits. A related situation is underemployment, in which workers do day labor, odd jobs, or engage in selling items that people buy in a spirit of public solidarity.

U. affects an average of between 3 to 10% of the economically active population in developed countries, and between 10 and 50% in developing countries, where it is the main social evil and the fundamental source of poverty. Marginalized sectors of the population and persons unable to work are not even included in the statistical measures of the unemployed under the currently used definitions of these terms.

UNIONISM. (ME.; Late OFr.; L. unio, oneness, from unus, one). Involves associations formed to advocate for and defend the common professional and economic interests of their members. System of organizing employees based on unions.

U. came into being in England in 1824. The right of workers to form associations of their own was recognized in 1868. U. subsequently spread to several countries of Europe and the Americas, and in the twentieth century became widespread throughout the world.

At times the union movement plays an important political role, participating in significant ways in the struggle for power (e.g., the "Solidarity" movement in Poland in the 1980s).

Unions and the union ideology tend to reflect the acuteness of economic confrontation in society, although in good economic times they serve as the basis for collaboration between labor and capital. This can be seen, for example, in the case of the AFL-CIO in the US.

In authoritarian regimes, the unionist ideology is used by union bureaucrats and single party systems to manipulate the masses for the benefit of the ruling elite. This can be seen, for example, in the official unions of the USSR and their descendants in Russia, in the relations between the official unions and the presidents of Mexico and Argentina, and in the vertical unions under the Franco regime in Spain.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism were significant forces, but in the current process of destructuring (*), traditional unions are giving way to fragmented autonomous groups, which only occasionally coordinate among themselves in relation to specific grievances or demands.

UNIVERSALIST HUMANISM. (From universal: L. universalis, universal, from universus, universal, lit., turned into one; unus, one, and versum, pp. of vertere, to turn. Humanism, see etymology at human being). Also called New Humanism (*). Characterized by an emphasis on the humanist attitude (*). The humanist attitude is not a philosophy but a point of view, a sensibility, a way of living in relationship with other human beings. U.H. maintains that in all cultures, in their most creative period or moment, the humanist attitude pervades the social environment. In such periods, discrimination, wars, and violence in general are repudiated. Strong impulse is given to the freedom of ideas and beliefs, which in turn provides incentive for research and marked creativity in science, art, and other social expressions. U.H. proposes a dialogue between cultures that is neither abstract nor institutional, but rather an agreement on fundamental points and a mutual and concrete collaboration between representatives of different cultures based on their respective and symmetrical humanist "moments" or eras (*humanist moment). The general ideas of u.h. are formulated in the "Statement of the Humanist Movement" (*Humanist Statement).

UTOPIA. (Gr. ou, not, and topos, place, i.e. a place that does not exist). From the title of the book Utopia (1516) by English statesman and author Sir Thomas More, who described an imaginary ideal republic. Synonymous with the dream of the artificial founding of an earthly paradise, of the highest social ideals.

In our time, Utopianism is characteristic of several philosophical schools of humanist orientation, for it reflects the aspiration to a better world – to happiness, equality, and well-being. This factor does play a certain positive role in the mobilization of the creative energies of human beings, contributing to the development of their intentionality as a real stimulus for social progress and as a moral standard.

In real life, however, artificial attempts to realize the Utopian ideal "here and now," without taking into account the concrete circumstances and tendencies in the development of each society, have generated many abuses of power and numerous human victims. These sad experiences are reflected in the critical literature of the "anti-Utopias."

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We invite everyone to participate with us in putting into practice the moral principle that says: "Treat others as you would like to be treated."
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