LANDSCAPE OF FORMATION. The personal stance or placement of an individual in any period of life takes place through the representation of both past actions and events and actions and events that are, to a greater or lesser degree, possible in the future. The process in which such representations or images are compared with current phenomena permits the structuring of what is called that person’s present situation. This inescapable process of representation in facing the flow of events makes it impossible that those events can have, in and of themselves, the structure that the individual normally attributes to them.

The term l. of f., refers to the events that each human being has lived through since birth, and always in relation to that person’s concrete surroundings. However, the influence of a person’s l. of f. does not take place simply through an intellectual, biographically-formed temporal perspective from which the individual observes the present, but instead involves a continual process of adjustment of the person’s approach to and placement in life based on accumulating experience. In this sense, the l. of f. acts as a sort of "background" against which interpretation and action take place, as a sensibility, and as the ensemble of beliefs and values by which an individual or a generation lives (*generations).

LAUGHTER. (ME. laughen; AS. hlehhan, hlihhan, to laugh, of imitative origin). A uniquely human physiological and behavioral characteristic. A movement of the mouth and other parts of the face that expresses happiness and delight on the part of a person or group.

Henri Bergson’s 1899 essay "Laughter" is of particular interest in this regard because, aside from its penetrating aesthetic insights, it shows how l. is grounded in a cognitive function adapted to real life yet opposed to the conceptual function. L. represents a reaction against the mechanical quality of appearances that are not deeply incorporated but merely accepted. In a given situation, when something throws the disproportion of these appearances into sharp relief, a rupture is produced, making it impossible to conceal these defects any longer. That rupture of previous concealment has various consequences, one of which is laughter; this is particularly evident in literary satire.

Humor and l. are keen instruments of political-social struggle. L. allows people to ridicule and pillory their oppressors, and to gain moral victory over them.

In many of its publications and social activities N.H. employs irony and satire to combat obfuscation, obscurantism, and oppression, and to defend human dignity and liberties.

LAW. (ME. lawe, laghe; AS. lagu, law, that which is laid or fixed, from licgan, to lie). Obligatory or necessary rule, an act of sovereign authority. A necessary relationship between the phenomena of nature. L., unlike custom, tradition, or faith, is a juridical norm.

The set of all laws constitutes the system of juridical norms (*legislation) and represents the province of the Law.

In society, the laws express the will and interests of human beings, and regulate the social and personal activity of the citizens. The content of the laws depends on the cultural level of the society in question. L. as a juridical act, cannot change the geo-strategic power of a state, its cultural level, etc., although it contributes to the State’s development in one direction or another. As historical experience demonstrates, the wholesale violation of cultural and social norms by tyrannical and totalitarian regimes leads to catastrophes, not only on a national scale but on an international scale as well (e.g. the two world wars of the twentieth century).

LEADER. (ME. leder; AS. laedere, a leader, from laedan, to lead). The director, manager, or head of a political party, parliamentary faction, social group, or other collectivity. The person or team that is ahead of the competition in a sporting event. This term has been extended to the political sphere and to the sociology of sports.

In social psychology it is observed that in each small group a natural or informal l. emerges whom others follow or imitate voluntarily, without any juridical procedure to formalize this quality and relationship.

The charismatic l. enjoys legitimacy, or better, emotional and rational recognition by other persons of his or her leadership. This legitimacy can be acquired and lost swiftly through accidental circumstances.

LEGISLATION. System of norms and rules that regulate the activity and conduct of the citizens and institutions of a state. Juridical order.

L. is a product of civilization. It came into being with writing. At the dawn of civilization, l. was made sacred and presented before public opinion as divine revelation, the work of a cultural hero or wise king thought to be enlightened by a corresponding deity. In ancient Greece and Rome l. was conceived as an expression of the collective will of the citizens, who promulgated laws in the assembly of citizens of the republic or through the legislative body elected by them (the Senate, for example). In the Middle Ages, legislative functions were granted to deliberative bodies formed on a corporative principle by the prince, king, or emperor, who carried out the common will of the estates in the form of laws. In modern times the principle of separation of powers is observed, and legislative power is so constituted (in democratic systems this power is elective and exercised through representatives).

Currently, in addition to national l. there is an emergence of international standards established by the UN and regional standards approved by regional bodies, which are approved by national representative bodies or plebiscites carried out at the national level in states that make up the regional organization.

LEGITIMACY. (from legitimate: LL. legitimatus, pp. of legitimare, to make lawful, from L. legitimus, lawful, from lex, legis, law). Quality of being genuine, authentic. Achieved through legitimation, the act of making legitimate, that is, verifying or validating the truth of a thing or the quality of a person or thing in conformity with the laws in effect.

It entails public recognition of some action, political figure, event, or procedure. This is frequently combined with legitimation or juridical validation of the authority or concrete act on the basis of the political constitution and existing law. L. instills trust in citizens and guarantees willing obedience and social and political harmony.

L. is linked to the emotional and intellectual spheres and also to the sphere of Law. An authority has power when it is based on law and enjoys the moral approval of the people and a recognition expressed through legal procedures, for example, the electoral process. When a legal authority loses its l., it is condemned to failure. In many states, power and official policy do not enjoy l., which attests to a crisis in that society. A crisis of l. opens the way for profound social and political changes. The protagonist of l. is the people and not the State. The feeling of the people that power is not legitimate can be suppressed for a time, but no one has the power to deprive the people of their capacity to formulate on their own their spiritual and moral attitude toward concrete power.

LEGITIMISM. (from legitimist: Fr. légitimiste, from L. legitimus, legitimate, from lex, legis, law). Principle presented at the International Congress of European powers in Vienna in 1814-15 by the French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Perigord, in order to defend the objectives of the French Bourbon dynasty, which had been deposed in 1792 and restored in 1814–1815, and which was considered in monarchist circles to be the legitimate government of France.

According to this principle, one cannot claim any territory unless its legitimate owner has abdicated from it; possessions that have been plundered must be returned to their legitimate sovereign.

Following the July Revolution of 1830 in France, the partisans of the Bourbons, who were deposed in the course of that revolution, proclaimed themselves "legitimists" and opposed to King Louis Philippe de Orléans (1830-1848). During the French Second Republic (1848-1852), the legitimists joined the Orleanists to form the "party of order," which was monarchist and clerical in character.

Today, the term "legitimist" designates a supporter of a king or dynasty, who believes that a given monarch has a legitimate mandate to rule.

LEISURE. (ME. leiser, leyser; OFr. leisir, leisure, permission, from L. licere, to be permitted). Entertainment or recreational pursuits, especially in works of invention or imagination which form and develop the human personality. Refers to time free from the activity of producing the material goods necessary for subsistence. L. excludes time used for work, transportation, personal hygiene, domestic chores, and sleep. L. includes time spent to satisfy personal interests such as recreation and entertainment, sports, play, art, social communication, reading, tourism, crafts, and other hobbies.

We distinguish active l., in which people engage in creative activities, developing their potential in multifaceted ways, from passive l., involving the consumption of cultural products created by others, though this second form also contributes to the formation and socialization of the personality. With the rise of leisure-time industries and so-called "mass culture," however, cultural values are being replaced by various substitutes that dehumanize life, deform the personality, and lower the cultural level of society.

N.H. considers that it is necessary to increase the amount of l., and to fill this free time with creative activities, elevating the level of culture, free time, entertainment, and recreation. The problem of the humanization of l. and the elevation of its content is one of the fundamental tasks facing current generations.

LIBERALISM. (from liberal: OFr. liberal; L. liberalis, of or pertaining to a freeman, befitting a freeman, noble, generous). Political doctrine traceable to John Locke (1632-1704), one of its most important theorists. Locke writes: "The natural liberty of man is to be free from any superior power on earth, and not to be under the will or legislative authority of man, but to have only the law of Nature for his rule. . . Freedom is not . . . ‘[a] liberty for every one to do what he lists, to live as he pleases, and not to be tied to any laws . . .’"

In accordance with this, Locke establishes two rights: one, the right to one’s liberty, and the other, the right to penalize anyone who tries to injure one in violation of natural law. He goes on to explain that work is the origin of property. How far does the right to property extend? To the point where one can "enjoy" the use of it.

The symbiosis between economic l. and Social Darwinism (*) has been an important step in the justification of the concentration of economic and political power in the hands of those who are "fittest in the struggle for survival." These few have been gifted by the laws of nature in comparison with the many who have not been so favored. And, logically, since it is important to respect "natural" laws, the perpetuation of inequalities between human beings is almost a moral obligation. As can be seen, economic l. in its radical posture constitutes a clear example of anti-humanism. Notwithstanding these limitations, during certain periods of history numerous advances in the struggle against the remnants of feudalism, clericalism, and monarchical absolutism can be credited to l.

L. has had numerous advocates, the most notable being: A. Smith, A. de Tocqueville, J. Stuart Mill, K. Popper, L. Von Mises, F. A. Hayek and, most recently, J. Rawls and R. Nozick (*neo-liberalism).

LIBERTY or Freedom. (OFr. liberte; L. libertas (-atis), freedom, from liber, free. Syn. of freedom: ME. fredom, freedom; AS. freodom; freo, free, and -dom, -dom). Supreme value and essence of human existence.

In religious consciousness, l. is conceived as a spiritual gift that is bestowed upon human beings, allowing them to choose between good and evil, sin and virtue. Some theologians, such as Jakob Boehme and Nicholas Berdyaev, derive the concept of liberty from the nothingness out of which God created the world. In existentialist philosophy (*existentialism), l. and existence are regarded as closely related concepts.

Partisans of determinism, i.e., the absolute priority of causes and laws for all phenomena, situate l. in a subordinate or dependent relation to necessity. In contrast, indeterminists place absolute value on l. and deny any dependence whatever of the human being on the laws of evolution of nature.

In reality, l. and necessity are not mutually exclusive concepts. Starting with a rigidly deterministic framework for the universe, Spinoza defined l. as a conscious necessity, as a choice for the human being in such actions as do not infringe on natural laws and on the dependencies determined by nature, by the conditions of life and real possibilities. We cannot overcome the spontaneous forces of nature, such as an eclipse of the sun, the tides, earthquakes, etc., but they can be understood so that we can conduct ourselves in a reasonable and free manner within certain natural limits and, of course, these laws can be consciously used in practical activity to the benefit of humanity.

Contemporary conceptions of the universe involving principles of complementarity, uncertainty, irreversible time, etc., do not eliminate certain constants that establish rigid limits (the speed of light, absolute zero, the laws of thermodynamics, the arrow of time, etc.), but at the same time the horizon of l. and choice is being broadened considerably, especially in humanity’s venturing forth into the cosmos, achievements in computer technology and information science, the creation of materials with new properties, genetic manipulation and the production of new organisms, and similar advances. In the sociopolitical sphere and in the realm of artistic endeavor, the boundaries of free choice have been substantially expanded.

In periods of crisis, the space for free choice (and consequently the degree of personal responsibility for decisions made), is much greater than in periods of the stable development of society.

The l. of the human being always has specific contents and is manifested in different spheres. In the economic sphere, human beings can be free if they control some of the means of production or necessities of life such as land, housing, money. Human beings can be deprived of private property, but this occurs because such property remains in the hands of other owners. Yet the possibility today that the means and sources of production can enter worker ownership (*) inaugurates a new stage in the field of economic freedom. In the political sphere, l. means the possession of all civil rights, shared administration, and the possibility for people to independently determine their own interests and actions. In the cultural sphere l. entails creative freedom and independence from the taste and will of others. In the spiritual realm, l. means the right to hold or not to hold socially accepted beliefs, and the opportunity to practice any faith or atheism without prohibition or coercion.

One’s l. cannot infringe on the l. of others, and this means that there must exist common rules of conduct, common responsibility, and symmetrical obligations and rights. Even anarchism (*), in declaring itself in favor of absolute l. of the individual and against authority, recognizes interdependence and solidarity as indispensable conditions for personal l., i.e., as a natural and normal self-limitation of l. The l. of human beings is first and foremost the capacity to determine for themselves and without external pressures their own conduct and decisions.

Moral l. is not the same as amorality or nihilism, although these categories also have to be regarded as manifestations of human l. Moral l. is a creative, innovative, personally independent attitude toward traditions, taboos, and punishments that are linked to moral coercion.

L. is not synonymous with arbitrariness, which is, rather, a form of alienation (*) since it is manifested in an anti-humanist manner in the coercion of the intentionality (*) of others. Authentic human l. cannot be limited to a single individual, but inevitably implies the presence of l. in others as well.

LOVE. (ME. love, luve; AS. lufu, lufe, love). Affection or attachment that moves us to seek a real or imaginary good and to desire its possession. The word l. has a number of different meanings, but represents an inclination toward someone or something. The care with which one shapes a work in a spirit of pleasure is considered a form of love. On the other hand, it is also used to designate sexual passion and one’s relationship with the beloved.

As for self-l., it is regarded positively when interpreted as a desire to improve one’s own conduct, and negatively when it involves excessive regard for oneself.

Humanists consider l. a fundamental psychological force assuring mutual aid and solidarity (*) among human beings, beyond the normally established limits between social groups and states.

      |A |B |C |D |E |F |G |H | I |J |K |L |M |N |O |P |Q |R |S |T |U |V |W |X |Y |Z |

We invite everyone to participate with us in putting into practice the moral principle that says: "Treat others as you would like to be treated."
More information:
www.dialogo.org , [email protected] or [email protected]