SCIENCE. (Fr. science, from L. scientia, knowledge, from sciens, scire, to know). Cognitive and research activity that produces rational and reasoned knowledge. Those who practice s. are designated scientists.

The field of s. consists of the elements of specific scientific knowledge, its conceptual apparatus, methods of research, and system of ensuring rigorous results. It also includes scientific publications, instruments, as well as research and educational institutions.

Traditionally, according to the subject of study we distinguish between the exact sciences (mathematics, logic, etc.), the natural sciences, which are concerned with the study of nature (physical, chemical, and biological sciences), and the humanities, which study arts and letters.

Some elements of scientific knowledge and scientific methods were developed in antiquity (particularly in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, pre-Columbian America, Greece, Rome, and Byzantium) and others during the Middle Ages. In the modern age after the seventeenth century, however, with what is called the scientific revolution based on the inductive method and experimental methods, s. diverged from theology and became an autonomous branch of study and activity, breaking with the Scholastic method. In the twentieth century, along with increasing differentiation of scientific disciplines, a growing importance has also been accorded to the processes of integration, interdisciplinary and systems studies, and modeling.

Obviously, s. is historical, and it progresses in accordance with the social process in general. This fact, which is often overlooked, leads to many errors of understanding. It is well known that the s. of one epoch becomes corrected or contradicted by new knowledge, so that one cannot speak rigorously of a definitive s. as if it were something enshrined forever with its great principles and conclusions. In this sense, it is more prudent to speak of the "present state of the sciences." The field of epistemology focuses on these and other problems, engaging in critical study of the development, methods, and results of the sciences.

S. is meant to serve the human being, human development, and harmony between humanity and nature. Unfortunately, up to this point many scientific discoveries have been applied more for destructive than creative purposes. In general, there are greater concentrations of high technology (*) in the military-industrial complex than elsewhere; the social sciences, far from contributing to the humanization of life, moral improvement, and human solidarity, are today used to manipulate the social consciousness and behavior of the masses, reinforcing the power of the oligarchies and bureaucratic institutions.

Meanwhile, all of culture, education, the socialization of the personality, and social progress depend on the level of development of s. and, in the long run, on the degree to which s. is given a humanist or anti-humanist orientation.

SECURITY. (Fr. sécurité; L. securitas (-atis), freedom from care, from L. securus, free from care, safe, secure). Broadly, the whole system of guarantees that protects human rights, above all the right to life; maintains social stability; prevents social disasters and violent disturbances; defends national sovereignty; and fulfills international obligations.

There are several kinds of s., including environmental, economic, social, civil, national, international, etc.

S. is one of the principal means for realizing political sovereignty, which serves the interests of each person and of society as a whole, and of the entire country in its relations with other countries and the international community. S. includes peace and the stable and progressive development of the personality and society.

Despotic, totalitarian, and authoritarian regimes twist the meaning of s., giving it an opposite sense – to conserve the status quo by any means. This is expressed in the misleadingly termed "national doctrine," which has attempted to justify crimes and violations of human rights by artificially setting them against supposed demands of national sovereignty. Those who preach the "doctrine of national s." have employed this slogan to hide the interests of the dominant groups, while inciting prejudice, xenophobia, and militarism. For this reason, N.H. has rejected and continues to reject the repressive concept of national s. at the service of dictatorships.

SELF-GOVERNANCE. (From governance: OFr. governance, gouvernance; ML. gubernantia, from L. gubernare, to govern, pilot). Self-management, self-government.

Within democratic political systems this term is applied to those organs of government elected by the people at the community and municipal level, and also to the electoral arrangements of cooperative societies and elected bodies of social-democratic organizations.

S.-G. is an ideal in anarchist (*) systems and within some branches of socialism, youth protest movements, feminist organizations, environmental groups, etc.

Contemporary humanists support the efforts of popular movements at the grassroots and neighborhood level, in educational institutions, clubs and associations, etc., to organize themselves democratically following the principle of s.-g., understood as a form of direct and participatory democracy. Humanists strive to collaborate with all other citizens in the exercise of their civil and constitutional rights in order to broaden the scope of democracy and to create organs of local, municipal power based on the model of the principle of s.-g. as a democratic expression of their will, of the culture of consensus and non-violence, and of human solidarity.

SEPARATISM. (from separate: L. separatus, pp. of separare, to separate; se-, apart, and parare, to arrange, provide). Doctrine and political movement that promotes the separation of a territory from a larger territory in order to achieve the independence of its population or its annexation by another State.

S. expresses the will to national self-determination which intensifies when the rights of ethnic, religious, cultural, or other minorities are violated, or when economic conditions worsen in a region of the country, which is commonly accompanied by infringements of human rights and arbitrary treatment of all kinds. When hunger for self-government is crushed by force, this generally engenders a reaction on the part of the oppressed, leading to a vicious circle of reciprocal violence as is happening in Chechenia, Kurdistan, the Basque country, Corsica, Northern Ireland, Tibet, the Yucatan, East Timor, and in other parts of the world today.

Bureaucratism (*bureaucracy) and arbitrary administrative acts on the part of the central power constitute an important factor in the generation of separatist conflicts.

A phenomenon of quite a different nature occurs when one area, region, or province of a country attempts to separate itself from the whole because of its more advanced development. Absent the imposition of any inequity or bureaucratic mistreatment, s. in such a case reflects the ambition of certain sectors or strata of the population to constitute their own power in isolation from the whole. Nor should we overlook the actions of oligarchic interest groups, which for their own benefit seek either to liberate themselves from the whole or to be annexed to another country.

Separation is a delicate problem that demands broad public debate, with the final decision always in the hands of the people. This is achieved through open plebescite, not by simple resolution of some occasional leadership of the separatist area. Moreover, even in the case of a plebiscite, it is important that a body of accords be reached between the separatist majority and the electoral minority that is obliged to accept the separation.

N.H. condemns ethnocide, genocide, and repression; advocates the recognition of cultural autonomy for minorities; and is convinced that the vicious circle of violence can be broken by measures that include raising the standard of living, eliminating areas of poverty, modernization of developing regions and countries, respect for human rights, de-bureaucratization, and democratization.

In any event, the phenomenon of s. will increase in the continuing process of destructuring (*) of national states that is today taking place in the world, and it can take a new direction only if the development of an authentic federative system that provides autonomy and sovereignty for the affected regions can be set in motion. Although the concept of an authentic federalism that could replace the disappearing national states may still seem somewhat shocking to the sensibilities of broad sectors of the populations, the new generations today have an awareness of the conflicts created by excessive centralization of the national State.

SILOISM System of ideas formulated by Silo, literary pseudonym of Mario Rodríguez Cobos. S. is a philosophical humanism (*), but is also an attitude and approach encompassing the values of New Humanism (*).

SLAVERY. (From slave: OFr. esclave, from ML. Slavus, Slav, from L. Gr. Sklabos, slave, ultimately from O. Slav. Slovene, slovo, applied to captives of Slavic origin in southeastern Europe). Age-old institution entailing absolute dependence of one human being (the slave) on another or others (the slaveholder). The slave is regarded as a thing, a living instrument, that can be bought, sold, inherited, etc.

Initially, prisoners of war, women, and children of conquered tribes were made into slaves by their conquerors. Later, with the development of trade, creditors began to convert debtors and impoverished neighbors and relatives into slaves.

In this way, great slave markets developed, with slaves working not only in domestic chores but also in agriculture, mining, crafts, as galley slaves on ships, gladiators in public spectacles, etc. The children of slaves were also considered slaves. S. and the slave trade eventually developed into a highly lucrative branch of the economy. Some slaves belonged to the State, as for example the Helots in Sparta. Slaves frequently rose up against their oppressors, as in the well-known slave wars of Ancient Rome in the years 135, 105-102, and the uprising of 73-71 BCE led by the renowned Spartacus.

In Haiti, Toussaint Louverture led a slave insurrection against the French slaveholders from 1796 to 1802, which culminated in island’s independence.

The productivity of slaves was always quite low in comparison with the work of free persons, but this was compensated for by the very low cost of the slaves that were obtained in innumerable wars and pirate operations, and the slave trade was one of the most important sources of the wealth used to finance the empires of Rome, England, Holland, Portugal, Spain, and others.

S. was abolished in Europe as a result of the French Revolution of 1789; then in Latin America during the wars of independence; in British India in 1833; in French colonies in 1848; in the United States in 1865; in Paraguay in 1870; and in Brazil in 1888.

However, s. was reestablished in the empires of Hitler, Stalin, and Mao in the form of concentration camps and the use of mass forced labor.

S. still survives today in several countries in Africa, Asia, and in some states of the Caribbean, Central America, and republics formed following the collapse of the USSR, sometimes reappearing in disguised forms.

Today, s. violates the legal and moral conscience of humankind, as we see reflected in the charter of the UN.

Humanism has always and continues to condemn s. as a degrading institution, completely contrary to the freedom and dignity of the human being.

SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS. (L. socialis, from socius, companion. Conscious: L. conscius, knowing, aware, from conscire, to know with, be cognizant of; from com-, with, and scire, to know). The psychosocial sphere of life and the historical process, which includes moral, religious, juridical, economic, political, and aesthetic ideas, as well as art, the sciences, social intentions, customs, traditions, etc. S.C. goes hand in hand with the processes of interpersonal communication that arise in the development of reciprocal interactions and influences among human beings.

In this vast structure two things stand out: the generational level (*generations) and the action and influence of both large and small social groups (*social group). S.C. has a complex relationship with culture, taking on tribal, regional, national, and international characteristics. Its expression is manifested through vertical as well as horizontal structures.

The forms of s.c. include morality, religion, art, science, philosophy, as well as juridical and political consciousness. One form of expression of s.c. is social or public opinion.

The humanist attitude (*) is a historical form of s.c. that has developed at various periods in different cultures, and been clearly manifested in the corresponding humanist moment (*) of each culture.

SOCIAL CONTRACT. (L. socialis, from socius, companion. Contract: L. contractus, pp. of contrahere, to draw together, make a bargain, com-, together, and trahere, to draw). According to the classic texts of the European Enlightenment, the S.C., that is, the pact among citizens, is the only legitimate source of law, power, and the State. The democratic system starts from the conception of the S.C., according to which citizens’ rights imply symmetrical civil responsibilities. This concept considers the political system to be a certain balance of powers.

An idea concerning the emergence of the State on the basis of a conscious contract among human beings, as opposed to the period of anarchy and barbarism, of the "war of all against all." According to this conception, human beings consciously and willingly accepted restraints on their freedom in favor of the State as guarantor of personal security and public order. This idea was developed more thoroughly by the philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), who concluded that the S.C. would be able to protect the rights of all.

The S.C. is also conceived as a form of understanding between different social classes, and cooperation between the citizens and the State, with the objective of avoiding bitter strikes, civil wars, and other forms of violent conflict.

SOCIAL DARWINISM. Sociological school of the late nineteenth century that extended English naturalist Charles Darwin’s ideas on the evolution of species through natural selection, to the social evolution of humankind, thus confusing biology with sociology. Positing as an absolute the thesis of the survival of the fittest and extending it to the social life of humankind leads to the negation of another tendency in the evolution of nature: solidarity within the species and mutual aid. S.D. is linked to the racial school of anthropology, and stimulates aggressive behavior among people, transforming them from brothers and sisters into enemies and rivals of their own kind.

S.D. is an example of anti-humanism (*), since it tends to artificially divide humankind, inciting one group against another, justifying fratricidal wars and various forms of oppression.

SOCIAL DEMOCRACY. (social: L. socialis, from socius, companion, ally; and *democracy). International ideological and political movement made up of political parties, youth groups, women’s groups, unions, and cooperatives. S.D. arose in Germany in the mid-nineteenth century as a political movement of wage-earning workers against capital, and was influenced by the ideas of Marx, Lassalle, Proudhon, Bernstein, Kautsky, and others. In the 1870s the anarchists split off from this movement, as did the communists during the First World War, both groups forming their own internationals. At the end of the nineteenth century and during the first half of the twentieth, this group of workers parties was known as the Second International.

Following the Second World War in the 1950s, the social democratic and socialist parties came together to form the Socialist International, which is still active today, headquartered in London.

Social democratic parties assimilated the principles of ethical socialism. They do not acknowledge the class struggle as the motor of the historical process, though they defend the interests and rights of workers; they are partisans of vigorous social politics; they favor the regulation of relations between capital and labor not only by means of corresponding agreements between unions and management but also by the State. They also support anti-monopolistic legislation, minority rights, economic and social programs for those most in need, some degree of redistribution of social wealth at the expense of the most wealthy, etc. S.D. favors peace, international cooperation, and independence for colonial states. Finally, it supports the idea of human socialism as a model for the society of the future.

SOCIAL GROUP. A community bound together by more or less strong bonds of profession, interests, work, religion, etc.

Within the s.g. a system of roles and rules forms spontaneously, leaders emerge, and group discipline and ideology take shape.

In the criminal community the group is united by joint participation in criminal acts and functions as an armed band, a group linked by mutual commitments and needs but also by common psychological factors such as fear, hatred, the desire for revenge, etc.

In the religious world, groups in the form of ecclesiastical congregations and monastic orders can be distinguished.

Throughout the world today is a wide array of active youth groups, feminist groups, neighborhood and grassroots groups, etc. This shows that the s.g. can be considered a form of self-organization, among the most stable and simple manifestations of the feeling of solidarity (*) and mutual support.

The s.g. is the primary and basic level of socialization of the personality in today’s atomized and dehumanized society. Sociologists distinguish different types of social groups: 1) large (tribe, class, nation); 2) small (family, neighborhood, community, groups of friends, and other primary groups); 3) nominal (classroom, theater audience); 4) institutional (coworkers, religious order, political party, banking corporation, military unit); and 5) referential (based on definitions of the character and role of the individual in society and the individual’s system of values, defined for example by a poll taken among a particular group workers. Such a poll gives insight into the characteristics of this whole trade, profession, etc., without the need to survey all members of the group).

All totalitarian and corporative systems make extensive use of group psychology and discipline in order to stifle personal or individual intellect and intentionality. Thus, Italian and German fascism initiated their activities by creating small, paramilitary groups of young people.

The s.g. can play a positive as well as negative role. It can mobilize people, lift their spirits, humanize their consciousness, and give them energy (for example, spontaneous grassroots groups, youth and feminist movements, humanist associations and clubs, etc.). In other cases, the group can stifle the personality (crime syndicates, fascist, racist, and fundamentalist groups). The key problem rests in finding ways to channel this group energy in favor of the interests of the human being as a free and reasoning person, appealing to the highest human sentiments and motives instead of exploiting irrational and destructive behaviors.

SOCIAL MOBILITY. Change of social status of a person or group within the social structure.

"Horizontal" mobility can be seen in the movement of persons from one sphere to another while they maintain the same social level (for example, the transfer of a worker from one factory to another, a move from one city to another). "Vertical" mobility is related to a promotion or demotion in social status by leaving one social category and entering another, due, for example, to an increase in qualifications, acquisition of a new profession, retraining, political change, economic crisis, etc.

The process of s.m. goes on continually; it energizes all social development and is also a consequence of such development. In personal terms, this can signify success and promotion, or frustration and failure; in social terms it can manifest itself in impoverishment or elevation of one’s social status.

Migration and immigration, that is, the geographical displacement of population from one territory to another, can also be accompanied by s.m. in the vertical sense, but these processes, though they may overlap, are not identical.

SOCIAL REFORMISM. A political tendency within the labor movement and social-democratic parties. This current denies the inevitability of class struggle and the socialist revolution; reformists support the idea of social cooperation between labor and capital, support positions against revolution, in favor of social reforms on behalf of workers, in favor of the creation of the "welfare society" and "people’s capitalism." This movement gained a foothold in the workers movement of democratic countries in Europe and the Americas, but did not prosper in countries ruled by totalitarian and authoritarian regimes.

S.R. arose in the European workers movement in the second half of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth. It gained strength from ethical socialism and revisions in Marxist doctrine. It opposed the notion of the indispensable role of political revolution and violence in history, and considered social reforms a crucial instrument of the working class in the transformation of society. Among principal contributors to its ideology have been Lassalle, Bernstein, Kautsky, Jaures, and Iglesias. The First World War did damage to a number of this movement’s postulates and strengthened the position of social revolutionism, out of which the international communist movement was born.

S.R. was one of the historical sources of postwar social-democracy and the Socialist International following the Second World War.

N.H. values the antiwar spirit and the repudiation of violence of s.r., its support for labor legislation, and its practice of unionism and cooperativism, but at the same time takes issue with the narrow classism and economic reductionism of its theorists.

SOCIAL ROLE. (social: L. socialis, from socius, companion. Role: Fr. role; L. rotulus, cylinder). Character or agency through which one takes part in the affairs of society.

The s.r. of a person has both psychological and sociological aspects. Every individual plays a certain part, depending on his or her position in the social structure, on social status. People’s conduct is related not only to their personal characteristics but also to their social status and the demands of their situation and circumstances. Within a given social group, each person plays a particular role (or roles). These roles evolve with changes in people’s status and varying circumstances. Each role has its functions, obligations, and attributes, and requires coordination with others, that is, it is subject to specific norms and expectations and has moral significance. These norms regulate interpersonal relations and contribute to the socialization of personal behavior as well as the resolution of conflicts within the social group and society. Thus, social roles can be viewed as one segment of the culture. With social progress, there is a diversifying of social roles, and each person plays roles of increasing number and complexity, not only throughout life but in each period of life. This allows an individual to develop his or her personality in multifaceted ways, to overcome the limitations and uniformity of only one role, to step outside it.

From the point of view of humanist psychology (*), the roles an individual plays are the system of structures of behavior that form the different layers of his or her personality.

SOCIAL SECURITY. Body of legislative measures and corresponding institutions that cover or protect against the risks faced by citizens, principally with regard to work and health.

These measures were instituted in Western Europe at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth; in Latin America, after the First World War; in the US in the 1930s.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION. (L. socialis, from socius, companion. Stratification, from stratify: L. stratum, a layer, pavement, and facere, to make). 1) Formation of and relation between the generations (*) that constitute a society. One of the instruments of study used in this analysis is the population pyramid. 2) Formation of and relation between the cultural collectivities that make up a society. 3) Formation of a society based on defining strata by the application of criteria of occupation, income, and relations of dependency (*). This type of analysis of the s.s. admits numerous variations. Historically, in periods dominated by the basic extractive activities (agriculture, mining, and fishing), the corresponding s.s. revealed a broad base of workers dedicated to those tasks. Following the industrial revolution there was a gradual change in the formation of the social base and the strata emerging from that process. The development of secondary and tertiary industries, and the growth of the service sectors correlatively modified the s.s. and people’s way of life. The factors of rural exodus, urban growth, and unequal growth in regional and world population are driving the trend toward the rapid formation of new forms of s.s. There is continuing displacement of large sectors of workers as a result of changing manufacturing technology and mass migrations from less favorable areas to others where, in turn, recession and unemployment are increasing. The present changes in s.s. are leading to the separation or isolation of strata that were previously related through solidarity (*), at the same time that the psychosocial phenomenon of discrimination (*) is on the increase.

SOCIAL WELFARE. (ME. welfare, from wel, well, and fare, from AS. faru, lit. a journey, from faran, to fare, go). Well-being of society. Object and measure of the progress of society. Also refers to self-organization, equality, and prosperity of the citizens, to the scope of their rights and liberties.

S.W. is both an index of the material and spiritual level of development of society and a permanent objective and striving toward a better state. The principle indexes of s.w. are: level of per capita income; real standard of living (food, housing, clothing, education); degree of development of democratic rights of the individual; freedom of conscience; and social guarantees that basic needs will be met in the areas of employment, health care, education, and retirement or social security.

For N.H. s.w. is dynamic and one of the primary categories corresponding to the effort to integrate the good of the individual and the good of the whole.

SOCIALISM. (from social: L. socialis, from socius, companion, ally). Social system in which there are no economic divisions, but an approach to a classless society with the means of production under the control of society. There is a tremendous variety of socialist schools. Around 1848 with Louis Blanc, s. emerged as a political power in Europe, but the influence of Marx (*Marxism-Leninism) set s. on a different path of class struggle and revolution. In Europe, several different social democratic parties have appeared, such as the British Labor party, that are convinced it is possible to achieve s. without revolution.

SOCIETY. (Fr. société; L. societas, from socius, companion, ally). Natural or agreed-upon grouping of persons, which constitutes a unity distinct from each of its individuals. A form or system of joint coexistence of human beings, and a certain stage of their self-organization. S. is not simply a summation or aggregation of individuals, but involves their larger self-organization.

In various periods of world history and in different regions, a number of specific models of s. have existed: various models of social structure, of family relations, of the community, of political institutions, of culture, ideology, etc. A s. may be made up of hundreds or thousands of communities, organized according to some criterion: religious, gender, work-related, family, residential, or some common interest.

The life of s. is dynamic, as is the life of each person, the carrier and creator of the social whole.

SOLIDARITY. (Fr. solidarité, solidaire, from L. solidum, for the whole, involving all). A comprehension or awareness of the community of feelings, interests, and ideals, or common objectives among people, and their corresponding actions. In a society that is divided into antagonistic groups, this feeling has group or corporative characteristics, uniting people of common ethnicity, race, profession, class or strata, nation, party, etc. At the same time, and as a defect, it can set group against group, dividing society and provoking antagonisms and resentments.

In certain social, political, religious and other movements it is present as a motivating force and moral principle of joint action for the achievement of common objectives, and it takes concrete form in the creation of solidary organizations and institutions. At the present time it is becoming ever more clearly a moral imperative to provide aid and collective support to victims of natural and social disasters, and to victims of any type of injustice and violence. That is how s. is interpreted in contemporary humanist consciousness, which does not separate one human being or group from another but strives to unite all human beings, motivating them to act together, in cooperation.

SPACE. (OFr. espace; L. spatium, space, from spatiari, to wander). Container of all coexisting perceptible objects; the part of this container occupied by each object; extent or size of a site, terrain, or place.

One of the most general concepts characterizing the universe. Its conception varies in different cultures and grows richer with scientific-technical progress. Different philosophical schools accord it dissimilar and even contradictory interpretations.

In the sociocultural and political arena, the positing of s. as an absolute has contributed to its being overvalued in military strategy and modern political geography, especially following the creation of the pseudoscience known as "geopolitics." Its use by the ideologues of fascism, racism, and ethnocentrism has contributed to the justification of acts of aggression (*) and colonization of weak countries, to the practice of genocide, and to the uprooting, removal, and mass relocation of conquered populations. The conversion of s. into an absolute is at the root of the aggressive doctrine of national security and the expansionism of modern empires, whose justification is adorned with the false conception of needed "living space." In reality, as the example of postwar Japan attests, scientific-technical progress along with measures for birth control make possible the development of a country without the expansion of its territory. These possibilities increase with the growth of regional and international integration.

STATE. (OFr. estat, state, case, condition, circumstances, etc.; L. status, state, position, standing, from stare, to stand). Basic instrument of political power. Its principle characteristics are: 1) a monopoly on violence, which is delegated to various armed organizations; 2) the levying of taxes; 3) bureaucracy, i.e., all the functionaries of the organs of the s.; 4) territoriality, that is, a geographical area in which the s. exercises its power; 5) the capacity to act in the name of all citizens it considers to be subjects. Frequently, the s. has been confused with the people or the civil society. In general, all forms of statism tend to avoid acknowledging this distinction.

The s. can be regarded as the fundamental institution of the political system and political organization which constitutes the structure of society. It is a complex social formation whose fundamental structural elements are: legislative institutions, executive bodies, judicial system, police forces, and armed forces. Every modern s. has a constitution and symbols of identity. It is the apparatus of social operation and management and, moreover, an association that occupies a certain territory and includes all members of a given society. The characteristic feature of the s. is its sovereignty, that is, a monopoly to represent the entire society. Today, the nation s. is tending to disappear through the process of regional and international integration, relinquishing its functions to supranational organisms.

With the development of society and improvement of its structure, the sphere of the s. has gradually given way to civil society, which is taking on a number of its functions.

The types of states and their relations with civil society and with other states depend on the type of civilization to which they belong. States are differentiated by their forms of government (monarchy, republic, tyranny, etc.), the structure of the institutions of political power (unitary, federal, confederated) and the political regime (presidential, parliamentary, authoritarian, totalitarian, etc.).

The s. has external or foreign and internal or domestic functions. Civil society is today assuming some of the internal functions of the s., and even beginning to carry out external functions, which are shared with the s.

The s., like any institution, is not a natural structure but a historical one that changes with the times and the society’s stage of development. In the present era, the nation s. is steadily losing sovereignty to a supranational para-state that is subject to international financial power.

New Humanists condemns violence on the part of the s. and adopt a historically precise position with respect to the policies of each specific s. The political attitude of humanists with respect to the s. depends on the essential social character of its policies and the methods used to carry them out.

STATEMENT OF NEW HUMANISM. Also called Document of the Humanist Movement or Humanist Statement (*Humanist Statement).

STRUCTURALISM. Philosophical current that arose in the decade of the 1960s, especially in France. It is a "way of thinking" that unites very different authors, who express themselves in the most diverse fields of the human sciences including anthropology (Claude Lévi-Strauss), literary criticism (Roland Barthes), Freudian psychoanalysis (Jacques Lacan), historiographic investigation (Michel Foucault), as well as specific philosophic movements such as Marxism (Louis Althusser).

These scholars reject the ideas of subjectivism, historicism, and humanism, which are the core of the interpretations of phenomenology and existentialism. Using a method in sharp contrast with that of the phenomenologists, "structuralists" tend to study the human being from outside, as though it were any other natural phenomenon, "the way one would study ants" (as Lévi-Strauss has said), and not from within, as the contents of consciousness would be studied. With this focus, which imitates the procedures of the physical sciences, they attempt to elaborate research strategies capable of elucidating the systematic and constant relations they believe exist in human behavior, both individual and collective, and to which they give the name "structures." These are not obvious relations, but deep relations that, in large part, are not consciously perceived, but limit and constrain human action. The research of structuralists tends to highlight the "unconscious" and conditioning factors rather than consciousness or human freedom.

The concept of structure (*) and the method inherent to it do not come to s. directly from the logico-mathematical sciences or from psychology (the Gestalt school), which had already been using this concept for some time. Rather, s. borrows its analytical instruments from linguistics. In fact, one point of reference common to the various distinct developments of s. has always been the work of Ferdinand de Saussure in his Course of General Linguistics (1915) which, in addition to constituting a decisive contribution for the foundation of modern linguistics, introduced the use of the "structural method" into the field of linguistic phenomena.

The vision of s. would have made more progress had it gone more deeply into the study of the fields of "presence" and "co-presence," in which Husserl locates the characteristic of the consciousness that allows it to infer more than it perceives or understands. Ratio-vitalism probes deeply into this co-presence in order to comprehend the structure of ideation, which it calls belief (*), and on which ideas and reason are based. We note that the system of beliefs is in no way related to a supposed "unconscious." It has its own laws, its own dynamic, and it is displaced historically, transformed by the generations (*) as their landscape (*) changes. Beliefs appear, then, as the "soil" in which these other structures of ideation called "ideas" are rooted and nourished.

STRUCTURE. (Fr. structure; L. structura, a building, from structus, pp. of struere, to heap together, arrange). This term can be defined in both broad and narrow senses. A series of random numbers is still a "series" or, more broadly defined, a s. Only something definitively amorphous would not be a s., which is equivalent to saying: "that which has no s. is not a s." But such a formulation is vacuous. In the sense explained by Husserl, the elements of a whole are not comprised as parts of the whole but as members, and therefore the totality or group is a whole and not simply a "sum." The members of a given body are correlated, and so they are not independent with respect to the others, and are in fact reciprocally interrelated. This marks an important distinction from the atomistic conception and its method of analysis applied to the study of a s. When Husserl establishes that in the s. of perception or representation, the "color" is not independent of the "size," he is indicating that an atomistic separation of the two terms ruptures precisely the real essence of the perception or representation. Thus, consciousness in general must be viewed as a s. that changes in its position-in-the-world, and in which each of its members is related with the others in an inseparable way in that change of position. This description is valid for an understanding of structures as diverse as historicity and human society.

As for the relation between a s. and its environment (which in turn should also be considered a s., for example, the biotic environment), it is usually designated as a "system" (in this example, an ecological system). In general, in any system the structures are interrelated as members of the same system. When we speak of the-human-being-in-the-world, we refer to a system of non-independent structures that in this case cannot be viewed as a human being (*) in itself, but rather as an "opening" toward the world and, in turn, the "world" can only be meaningfully apprehended in relation to the human being.

STYLE OF LIFE. (ME. stile; OFr. stile, style, from L. stilus, iron-pointed instrument for writing on wax tablets; also, a manner of writing). Historical assemblage of forms of communication and the system of images and methods of artistic creation characteristic of a personality or a group of people. This assemblage represents tastes, habits, and modes of behavior that reflect particularities of the internal world of the personality or group expressed through the external forms of human existence. The s.o.l. depends, in large part, on the cultural values, psychosocial characteristics, and historical traditions of the family, social or ethnic group, and religion in which a person has been formed. It is connected to the mode or way of life manifested in norms and stereotypes of behavior and consciousness of large human groups and even entire generations and civilizations. The s.o.l. also includes corresponding ethical and aesthetic dimensions. The most human forms of self-realization and self-education are embodied in the s.o.l., revealing the degree of liberty and integrity of the person.

The humanist s.o.l. is marked by a respect for diversity, and the rights, opinions, and interests of others, by a repudiation of violence and exploitation, by the intention and project of maintaining harmonious relations with nature and society, and by an eagerness to deepen one’s knowledge and to broaden and perfect one’s skills.

SUFFERING. (from suffer: OFr. soffrir, suffrir; L. sufferre, to undergo, endure; sub, under, and ferre, to bear). The problems of pain and s. are given the highest importance within N.H. A distinction is made between pain (as a psycho-physical response to bodily injury, whether originating outside or inside the body) and s., which corresponds to a mental attitude or approach to facing problems, whether real or imagined. Having made this distinction, it can be said that the motivating force of human action is the overcoming of physical pain and the consequent search for physical pleasure. The activity of the civilizing process proceeds in this direction. Thus, the development of science and social organization corresponds to the solutions to this problem that are developed. Social organization itself starts from the temporal and spatial finiteness of the human being as an individual, and this finiteness, marked by human pain and vulnerability, is countered with social endeavor. Hunger, lack of shelter or protection from the elements, as well as human susceptibility to disease and many other kinds of bodily ills – all these are combated through the advance of society and, little by little, the progress of science.

S., however, is mental, and does not correspond to the lack of fulfillment of immediate needs, nor is it a bodily response to painful physical stimuli. Such problems as the fear of sickness, of loneliness, of poverty, or of death cannot be resolved in physical terms, but only through an existential position or approach toward life in general. Whatever the circumstances, s. occurs along distinct pathways that include perception (present), memory (past), and imagination (future). It does not arise, however, from the perception of painful physical stimuli but from the perception of stimuli related, for example, to a life one is unable to attain, or the despair generated by one’s failure to attain it, etc. The pathways of memory and imagination in s. present their own characteristics as well. Certainly, in operation the consciousness is structural and comprehensive, so that this distinction between paths serves only for purposes of analysis, and when s. occurs it does so globally, and what we have is a suffering consciousness, though it may be possible in each case to distinguish certain aspects or pathways that play a more pronounced role.

For humanists, the activity of highest priority is that which goes toward overcoming both pain and s., and this conception is the origin of their vision of the need for social endeavor realized in common, on behalf of science, social justice, and against all violence and discrimination. In overcoming mental s., humanism has much to contribute in regard to the problem of meaning in life, to people’s placement in facing life, and to the future development of the human being.

      |A |B |C |D |E |F |G |H | I |J |K |L |M |N |O |P |Q |R |S |T |U |V |W |X |Y |Z |

We invite everyone to participate with us in putting into practice the moral principle that says: "Treat others as you would like to be treated."
More information:
www.dialogo.org , [email protected] or [email protected]