|
DYSPNOEA |
|
PULMONARY CAUSES [causing impaired ventilation] |
|
|
upper airways obstruction [causes stridor]: |
trauma tumours epiglottitis (H. influenzae in young children)laryngeal oedema laryngospasm foreign body aspiration abductor paralysis of vocal cords |
|
lower airway obstruction: |
tumours chronic obstructive pulmonary disease asthma foreign body aspiration inhalation of toxic fumes [may also cause pulmonary oedema]cholinergic drugs carcinoid syndrome |
|
'space-occupying lesions' [causing decreased lung volume]: |
pleural effusion(s) tumours (bronchial, mesothelioma, etc.)large hiatus hernia haemothorax pneumothorax |
|
infection: |
pneumonia abscess empyema tuberculosis bronchiectasis |
|
interstitial lung disease [impaired gas transfer]: |
lymphangitis carcinomatosa |
|
other: |
atelectasis pneumonectomy |
|
CARDIAC DISEASE [causing pulmonary oedema] |
|
left-sided heart failure valvular heart disease arrhythmias cardiomyopathy pericardial effusion cardiac shunts |
|
IMPAIRED RESPIRATION |
|
|
chest wall pathology: |
kyphoscoliosis rib fractures / flail chest sternal compression |
|
diaphragmatic compression or splinting: |
pregnancy subphrenic abscess tense ascites morbid obesity diaphragmatic palsy |
|
METABOLIC CAUSES [acidosis causing Kussmaul breathing] |
|
uraemia diabetic ketoacidosis septicaemia hepatic failure |
|
HAEMATOLOGICAL DISEASE [causing decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of blood] |
|
|
anaemia: |
|
|
abnormal haemoglobin: |
haemoglobinopathies thalassaemias |
|
other: |
|
|
VASCULAR DISEASE [perfusion defects or VQ mismatch] |
|
|
other: |
pulmonary embolism / infarction pulmonary arteriovenous shunts [dyspnoea worse when erect than supine] |
|
OTHER / MISCELLANEOUS CAUSES |
|
psychogenic |
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