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Suffixation: Pronunciation and Spelling Rules

This website uses symbols to transcribe phonemes (sounds). For an explanation of what these symbols represent, click here: vowels, consonants. The following special symbols are used:
ə Λ ā ē ī ō ū ű œ θ δ š ž č ĵ ŋ
If your browser cannot display any of these characters, you are advised to move to a browser which can, such as Internet Explorer 6.0.
Note: an apostrophe ' is placed before the accented vowel.

A suffix is an element added to a root (usually a root is a word). Some have only one pronunciation, such as -ing, while others have various pronunciations, such as -ed, -es/-s, -er/-or/-ar. Many roots keep the same pronunciation when these suffixes are added, but their spelling changes.

Important note! The rules below only deal with roots which take these three standard suffixes, and whose pronunciation does not change a suffix is added. These rules cannot be applied to words like wife /w'aif/ > wives /w'aivz/ or sell /s'el/ > sold /s'ōld/, where the root changes its pronunciation and the suffixes may have non-standard forms.

The reason for many spelling changes in English is this: the spelling is changed to keep the pronunciation the same according to the conventions of English spelling. The basic principle behind these spelling conventions is remarkably simple. A single vowel-letter represents a long vowel if followed by a single consonant-letter and then another vowel-letter (which can be silent e). Therefore:

(1) If a root ends in a silent e, this is removed and a suffix starting with a vowel-letter is added to take its place: tape /t'ēp/ + -ing > taping /t'ēpiŋ/.

(2) If a root contains a short vowel and ends with a single consonant-letter, adding another vowel-letter to its end would indicate a change in the vowel to the long pronunciation below (see pronouncing single vowel letters for discussion):

Spelling (single vowel-letter): a e i o u
Short pronunciation: /a/ /e/ /i/ /o/ /Λ/ or /u/
Long pronunciation: /ē/ /ī/ /ai/ /ō/ /ű/, /jū/, /ū/

To prevent such a change, the final consonant is doubled so that two consonant-letters now come between the root vowel and the suffix's vowel-letter and 'protect' the root vowel from lengthening: tap /t'ap/ + -ing > tapping /t'apiŋ/.

(3) In case (2), if the suffix added contains no vowel-letter, no doubling is needed to 'protect' the root vowel: tap /t'ap/ + -s > taps /t'aps/.

(4) A root containing a long vowel does not need 'protection' from lengthening, so there is no doubling with roots in long vowels: keep /k'īp/ + -ing > keep /k'īpiŋ/.

(5) A vowel spelt with more than one letter is treated as 'protected' and does not need doubling of the following consonant-letter, even if it represents a short vowel: look /l'uk/ + -ing > looking /l'ukiŋ/.

(6) Rhotic vowels were originally vowels followed by /r/. The combinations /er/, /ir/, /Λr/, /ur/ have all changed to /œr/1; /ar/ and /or/ have significantly changed their vowel sounds, so the vowel sounds in /ar/ and /or/ sound a little different from those of /a/ and /o/1. Considering these changes, we can create a scheme similar to that in (2) above for the rhotic vowels. This is historically the same set of vowels which have merged with the following /r/:

Spelling (single vowel-letter plus r): ar er ir or ur
'Short' pronunciation: /ar/ /œr/ /œr/ /or/ /œr/
'Long' pronunciation: /ēr/ /īr/ /air/ /or/ /űr/, /jūr/
1 But in many Scottish dialects, these still sound like the vowels /a/, /e/, /o/, /Λ/ followed by the sound of /r/.

If these rhotic vowels occur at the end of a root in their short form (spelt ar, er, ir, ur) with no other letters following, then they double their letter r to 'protect' them from a sound change when a suffix starting with a vowel-letter is added, for reasons like those described in (2) above: star /st'ar/ + -ing > starring /st'ariŋ/.

Since or does not have different 'short' and 'long' pronunciations, no doubling of r is needed to 'protect' it.

The detailed spelling rules below all derive from the application of these principles.

Detailed spelling rules: adding suffixes -ing, -ed, -es/-s

Two suffixes have varying pronunciations (syllabic and non-syllabic): -ed and -es/-s.

In many instances, adding these suffixes does not change the spelling of the root:
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
look /l'uk/ looking /l'ukiŋ/ looked /l'ukt/ looks /l'uks/
wish /w'iš/ wishing /w'išiŋ/ wished /w'išt/ wishes /w'išiz/ Final /š/ causes syllabic /iz/ which causes spelling -es.
sail /s'ēl/ sailing /s'ēliŋ/ sailed /s'ēld/ sails /s'ēlz/
call /k'oal/ calling /k'oaliŋ/ called /k'oald/ calls /k'oalz/

If the root ends in silent e, remove this and add the suffix (-es/-s will always be spelt -es, but this does not mean that it will always have the syllabic pronunciation).
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
waste /w'ēst/ wasting /w'ēstiŋ/ wasted /w'ēstid/ wastes /w'ēsts/ Final /t/ causes -ed to have its syllabic pronunciation, /id/. This does not change its spelling.
ice /'ais/ icing /'aisiŋ/ iced /'aist/ ices /'aisiz/
hose /h'ōz/ hosing /h'ōziŋ/ hosed /h'ōzd/ hoses /h'ōziz/ Final /š/ causes syllabic /iz/.
encase /iŋk'ēs/ encasing /iŋk'ēsiŋ/ encased /iŋk'ēst/ encases /iŋk'ēsiz/ Final /š/ causes syllabic /iz/.
halve /h'āv/ halving /h'āviŋ/ halved /h'āvd/ halves /h'āvz/
double /d'Λbəl/ doubling /d'Λbəliŋ/ doubled /d'Λbəld/ doubles /d'Λbəlz/
bathe /b'ēδ/ bathing /b'ēδiŋ/ bathed /b'ēδd/ bathes /b'ēδz/
wire /w'air/ wiring /w'airiŋ/ wired /w'aird/ wires /w'airz/
bore /b'or/ boring /b'oriŋ/ bored /b'ord/ bores /b'orz/

If the root ends in a full short vowel (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/, /Λ/) spelt as a single vowel-letter, followed by a single consonant spelt as a single consonant-letter, then this consonant-letter is doubled before adding a suffix spelt with a vowel-letter, even if this letter is silent (-ing, -ed, -es). Before a suffix spelt without a vowel-letter (-s), this doubling does not happen. However, the rare roots in single s generally do not double their s: see gases and buses below. (The suffix -es/-s will be spelt -s if it has non-syllablic pronunciation, and -es if it has syllablic pronunciation (rare).)
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
beg /b'eg/ begging /b'egiŋ/ begged /b'egd/ begs /b'egz/
rob /r'ob/ robbing /r'obiŋ/ robbed /r'obd/ robs /r'obz/
skin /sk'in/ skinning /sk'iniŋ/ skinned /sk'ind/ skins /sk'inz/
tap /t'ap/ tapping /t'apiŋ/ tapped /t'apt/ taps /t'aps/
rev /r'ev/ revving /r'eviŋ/ revved /r'evd/ revs /r'evz/
gas /g'as/ gassing /g'asiŋ/ gassed /g'ast/ gases /g'asiz/ Final /š/ causes syllabic /iz/ which causes spelling -es.
bus /b'Λs/ bussing /b'Λsiŋ/ bussed /b'Λst/ buses or busses /b'Λsiz/ Final /š/ causes syllabic /iz/ which causes spelling -es.

In roots with the same vowels, but spelt with more than one consonant-letter after the vowel-letter (whether this spells one consonant phoneme or more), no doubling will take place. (The suffix -es/-s will be spelt -s if it has non-syllablic pronunciation, and -es if it has syllablic pronunciation.)
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
mash /m'aš/ mashing /m'ašiŋ/ mashed /m'ašt/ mashes /m'ašiz/ Two consonant-letters sh spell one consonant phoneme /š/. Final /š/ causes syllabic /iz/ which causes spelling -es.
yell /j'el/ yelling /j'eliŋ/ yelled /j'eld/ yells /j'elz/ Two consonant-letters ll spell one consonant phoneme /l/.
tuck /t'Λk/ tucking /t'Λkiŋ/ tucked /t'Λkt/ tucks /t'Λks/ Two consonant-letters ck spell one consonant phoneme /k/.
sniff /sn'if/ sniffing /sn'ifiŋ/ sniffed /sn'ift/ sniffs /sn'ifs/ Two consonant-letters ff spell one consonant phoneme /f/.
boss /b'os/ bossing /b'osiŋ/ bossed /b'ost/ bosses /b'osiz/ Two consonant-letters ss spell one consonant phoneme /s/.
cough /k'of/ coughing /k'ofiŋ/ coughed /k'oft/ coughs /k'ofs/ Two consonant-letters gh spell one consonant phoneme /f/.
watch /w'oč/ watching /w'očiŋ/ watched /w'očt/ watches /w'očiz/ Three consonant-letters tch spell one consonant phoneme /č/. Final /č/ causes syllabic /iz/ which causes spelling -es.
help /h'elp/ helping /h'elpiŋ/ helped /h'elpt/ helps /h'elps/ Two consonant-letters lp spell two consonant phonemes /lp/.
want /w'ont/ wanting /w'ontiŋ/ wanted /w'ontd/ wants /w'ontz/ Two consonant-letters nt spell two consonant phonemes /nt/.

In roots which contain the same vowel phonemes, but spelt with more than one vowel-letter, no doubling will take place. (The suffix -es/-s will be spelt -s if it has non-syllablic pronunciation, and -es if it has syllablic pronunciation.)
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
cook /k'uk/ cooking /k'ukiŋ/ cooked /k'ukt/ cooks /k'uks/
head /h'ed/ heading /h'ediŋ/ headed /hedid/ heads /h'edz/ Final /d/ causes -ed to have its syllabic pronunciation, /id/. This does not change its spelling.

Roots spelt with more than one vowel-letter do not have doubling of the final consonant. (The suffix -es/-s will be spelt -s if it has non-syllablic pronunciation, and -es if it has syllablic pronunciation.)
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
need /n'īd/ needing /n'īdiŋ/ needed /n'īdid/ needs /n'īdz/ Final /d/ causes -ed to have its syllabic pronunciation, /id/. This does not change its spelling.
boil /b'oil/ boiling /b'oiliŋ/ boiled /b'oild/ boils /b'oilz/
moan /m'ōn/ moaning /m'ōniŋ/ moaned /m'ōnd/ moans /m'ōnz/

If the root ends with one of the rhotic vowels /ar/, /or/, /œr/ spelt as ar, er, ir, ur, yr (that is, spelt as a single vowel-letter other than o followed by single r and no other letter) the final r is doubled in spelling before suffixes spelt with a vowel-letter, even if this letter is silent (-ing, -ed, but not -s). (The suffix -es/-s will always be spelt -s and have the non-syllablic pronunciation.)
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
star /st'ar/ starring /st'ariŋ/ starred /st'ard/ stars /st'arz/
stir /st'œr/ stirring /st'œriŋ/ stirred /st'œrd/ stirs /st'œrz/
aver /əv'œr/ averring /əv'œriŋ/ averred /əv'œrd/ avers /əv'œrz/
war /w'or/ warring /w'oriŋ/ warred /w'ord/ wars /w'orz/

A spelling with one or more vowel-letter followed by rr will not change. A spelling with two or more vowel-letters followed by r will not change. (The suffix -es/-s will always be spelt -s and have the non-syllablic pronunciation.)
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
purr /p'œr/ purring /p'œriŋ/ purred /p'œrd/ purrs /p'œrz/ Spelling rr always remains as rr.
steer /st'īr/ steering /st'īriŋ/ steered /st'īrd/ steers /st'īrz/ Two vowel-letters before r means r never doubles.

A spelling with one or more vowel-letter followed by re will lose its silent e like any other word spelt with silent e (above). (The suffix -es/-s will always be spelt -es and have the non-syllablic pronunciation.)
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
care /k'ēr/ caring /k'ēriŋ/ cared /k'ērd/ cares /k'ērz/
tire /t'air/ tiring /t'airiŋ/ tired /t'aird/ tires /t'airz/
cure /k'űr/ curing /k'űriŋ/ cured /k'űrd/ cures /k'űrz/

Some roots end in reduced pronunciations like /ər/, /ən/, /əl/. If these end with silent e, they behave like any other word ending in silent e:
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
battle /b'atəl/ battling /b'atəliŋ/ battled /b'atəld/ battles /b'atəlz/
centre /s'entər/ centring /s'entəriŋ/ centred /s'entərd/ centres /s'entərz/ -re is a British spelling; in North America this is spelt -er.

Roots in /ər/, /ən/, /əl/ spelt with a single final consonant without silent e, such as er, or, en, on, generally do not double their final consonant. Spellings in el vary: forms with and without doubling are used.
Root -ing -ed -es/-s Notes
litter /l'itər/ littering /l'itəriŋ/ littered /l'itərd/ litters /l'itərz/
motor /m'ōtər/ motoring /m'ōtəriŋ/ motored /m'ōtərd/ motors /m'ōtərz/
garden /g'ardən/ gardening /g'ardəniŋ/ gardened /g'ardənd/ gardens /g'ardənz/
button /b'Λtən/ buttoning /b'Λtəniŋ/ buttoned /b'Λtənd/ buttons /b'Λtənz/
travel /tr'avəl/ traveling~travelling /tr'avəliŋ/ traveled~travelled /tr'avəld/ travels /tr'avəlz/


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