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Suffixation: Forms of Roots and Suffixes

This website uses symbols to transcribe phonemes (sounds). For an explanation of what these symbols represent, click here: vowels, consonants. The following special symbols are used:
ə Λ ā ē ī ō ū ű œ θ δ š ž č ĵ ŋ
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Note: an apostrophe ' is placed before the accented vowel.

Most of the time, when a suffix is attached to a root, the root's pronunciation stays the same; its spelling may change. However, some roots do change their pronunciation when certain suffixes are added to them.

The suffix -ing

When -ing is added to the end of a root, this never produces a change in the sound of the root (except in a few rare and unusual dialects). You may think that you have found words where adding -ing changes to a root, but probably what you have found will be -ing added to a derivative form such as bath (root) > bathe (derivative) > bathing or half (root) > halve (derivative) > halving.

Spellings with final i and y stay unchanged with addition of -ing: ski > skiing, fly > flying, worry > worrying.

The full pronunciation of -ing is /iŋ/. It is very common to change the /ŋ/ to /n/: this is generally considered vulgar. Some dialects also reduce /i/ to /ə/, so the forms we see are /iŋ/ > /in/ > /ən/.

The suffix -ly

Adding -ly /lī/ to the end of a word can cause move the position of the word's accent. This generally happens if there are several syllables between the accented syllable and with -ly; these conditions tend to occur in long words accented near the start: secondary /s'ekənderī/ + -ly > secondarily /sekənd'erilī/, momentary /m'ōmənterī/ + -ly > momentarily /mōmənt'erilī/. This prevents reduction of the newly-accented vowel: contrast these forms with /e/ reducing to zero when unstressed:
secondary /s'ekəndrī/ vs. secondarily /sekənd'erilī/
momentary /m'ōməntrī/ vs. momentarily /mōmənt'erilī/

Adding -ly can also trigger vowel reducion: when attached after a final /ī/, this usually reduced to /i/ or further to /ə/: lazy /l'ēzī/ + -ly > lazily /l'ēzilī/ > /l'ēzəlī/

When -ly is added to a word ending in /l/, both /l/s are pronounced:
shrill /šr'il/ + -ly > shrilly /šr'illī/
whole /h'ōl/ + -ly > wholly /h'ōllī/

Spellings with final silent e usually keep this in the spelling when -ly is added: brave + -ly > bravely, mere + -ly > merely. An exception is whole > wholly (above).

Spellings with final y usually change to i when -ly is added. This is always true if the y is unaccented (merry + -ly > merrily). If y is accented, it usually happens (dry + -ly > drily), but a few words keep y (shy > shyly).

The suffix -er/-or (rarely -ar)

This suffix is usually pronounced /ər/, however it is spelt.

It forms the comparative degree ('more') of adjectives, always spelt -er and pronounced /ər/ where the comparative is formed with this suffix. It follows the same spelling rules as the suffix -ed to keep the pronunciation of the root the same when the suffix is added:
black /bl'ak/ + -er > blacker /bl'akər/ 'more black' (No spelling change.)
big /b'ig/ + -er > bigger /b'igər/ 'more big' (Spelling change: final g is doubled.)
nice /n'ais/ + -er > nicer /n'aisər/ 'more nice' (Spelling change: final silent e is replaced by that of -er.)

Some adjectives, instead of adding -er, have special forms of the comparative. These usually end in r or re:
good /g'ud/ > better /b'etər/ 'more good'
much /m'Λč/ > more /m'or/ 'more much'

Another use of -er is forming subject-nouns ('one who does'/'that which does'). These have more varied spellings.
walk /w'oak/ + -er > walker /w'oakər/ 'one who walks' (No spelling change.)
tip /t'ip/ + -er > tipper /t'ipər/ 'that which tips' (Spelling change: final p is doubled.)
vote /v'ōt/ + -er > voter /v'ōtər/ 'one who votes' (Spelling change: final silent e is replaced by that of -er.)

Some verbs have subject-nouns in -or instead of -er. These generally come from French, which has an accented suffix -eur (earlier -our), from Latin -or. Some speakers may pronounce these with /or/ rather than /ər/.
inspect /insp'ekt/ > inspector /insp'ektər/ 'one who inspects', from Latin inspicere
adapt /əd'apt/ > adaptor /əd'aptər/ 'that which adapts', from the French verb adapter, from Latin adaptare
vend /v'end/ > vendor /v'endər/ 'one who vends', from the French verb vendre, from Latin vendere
sail /s'ēl/ > sailor /s'ēlər/ 'one who sails', from the English verb sail, from Old English segl

A few subject-nouns are spelt -ar. There is no rule for this; you must simply learn these spellings:
beg /b'eg/ > beggar /b'egər/ 'one who begs'
lie 'tell untruth' /l'ai/ > liar /l'aiər/ 'one who tells untruth', but lier /l'aiər/ 'one who lies (position)'
peddle 'sell' /p'edəl/ > pedlar /p'edələr/ 'one who peddles'

Some words for professions developed /īər/ > /jər/ spelt -ier or -yer. Some of these are added to verbs which still exist today, while others are not (see below):
saw 'cut wood with a saw' /s'oa/ > sawyer /s'oajər/ > /s'oir/ 'one who saws'
haul 'transport' /h'oal/ > haulier /h'oalīər/ > /h'oaljər/ 'one who hauls (professionally)'
clothe 'put clothes on (someone else)' /kl'ōδ/ > clothier /kl'ōδīər/ > /kl'ōδjər/ 'one who clothes' (in the sense 'sell clothing')
glaze 'work with glass, make or install windows' /gl'ēz/ > glazier /gl'ēzīər/ > /gl'ēzjər/ > /gl'ēžər/ 'one who glazes (professionally)'

The verb save /s'ēv/ has the regular subject-noun saver /s'ēvər/ 'one who saves', from late Latin salvare. Someone who saves money is called a saver. The same verb also has an irregular form saviour (British), savior (North American) /s'ēvīər/ > /s'ēvjər/. The irregular subject-noun is generally used for someone who saves people (saving lives, saving souls, etc.)

This one is really irregular:
guarantee /garənt'ī/ > guarantor /garənt'or/ 'one who guarantees', related to the Old French verb guarantir, of Frankish origin

There are also scholar 'one who studies', carpenter 'one who works wood', tailor 'one who makes clothes', lawyer 'one who practices law' and collier 'one who mines coal' which do not have equivalent verbs in English.

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