Water's Secrets
Water is probably the most helpful and most common surface molecule on this planet, yet it is the most maligned, misunderstood, misinterpreted, misrepresented and least known molecule of all. Sheer complacency, false beliefs, poor assumptions and outrageous theory have created a situation where water has been totally ignored. Any real discussion involving water is like describing a hitherto unknown new chemical. So it is, that this subject is an exciting frontier of virgin research.
In the past, when the experimental results seemingly challenged the "beliefs", Science merely invented an explanation to make many observations of such "exceptions" seem plausible and natural, to fit within the fabric of the Science. This attitude of blind acceptance produced a wrong, deluded and confused picture of things.
As steam was not chemically affected by heating, many false and incorrect beliefs grew about water. The notion "Water won't burn" is a total fallacy. The definition of "burning" changes from person to person. Burning is accepted as a violent chemical reaction in the atmosphere, involving chemical and physical reactions, releasing a great deal of energy. The truth is that the attraction of the water molecules to other molecules can be so great that water is chemically burnt forming chemical products whilst liberating heat and a flame. Water does burn, and in the correct environment can be made to explode.
Understanding water is made complex because the molecule is far too simple to be true. It is a chameleon being the Doctor Jekyll and Mr. Hyde molecule of the chemical world. It is important to know and understand water as the friend and as the foe. In its own right, water can be the most vicious and dangerous molecule having many good, and no so good, applications.
Although Chemistry calls water a "neutral" substance, in certain circumstances be warned, this peaceful and placid friend is capable of being the most vicious enemy, an aggressive acid or alkali; a fearsome adversary, and a killer. So serious is this situation, Water should come with warnings, similar to those imposed on the tobacco industry such as "Water Kills"; "Water can endanger one's health"; "Water can harm others"; "Water is dangerous, use only under strict supervision" ; "Excessive Water is a health hazard"; etc. Under pressure, water can cut through steel, through roads, break rocks, move buildings; water can burn other objects with an intense heat, yet it can extinguish other types of fires; water is responsible for some earthquakes, has demolished villages and towns, killing millions; water can insulate, or be a conductor; it can transport many chemicals, yet is alien to many other chemicals.
From ancient times, when the chemist or geologists needed to perform chemical analysis on some unknown material, always, the first test is to determine whether the substance reacts with water. Always the first answer given deals with another process called "Wetting". When the water molecule is compatible to the material, wetting takes place, but will not occur with an incompatible material, so the water forms "beads" and surface tension streams and flow paths. This is not an exclusive characteristic of water, rather it is a property of all liquids (including the atmospheric gases). On the Earth, when water is poured onto a surface or into a cup, wetting takes place. Even though the water may be removed and the surface dry, the material may still remains very wet. Drying the surface does not remove all the water. Often the remaining water molecules can act as a catalyst. If fresh mild steel is cleaned and polished to reveal a metallic lustre, in a dry atmosphere, the metal will not begin to rust. It can remain in a stable dry environment for many years in this pristine state. However, when a tiny amount of water is spilt on that piece of clean steel, rusting immediately occurs and no matter how one attempts to remove the water, the rusting process continues to eat away, converting the entire steel block to rust. The water molecule acts as a catalyst linking Oxygen to the metal steel molecules, migrating from atom to atom, thus beginning the rusting process. Heating to remove the water only exacerbates the catalytic reactions. Grinding, to remove the surface layers of a contaminated steel block, may remove most of the water contaminants.
The attraction of the water molecule to the steel is so great that apparently dry surfaces can be very wet at the atomic level. Coating the surface with an oil or a paint only retards the water catalyst, for once the reaction starts, it will continue, even under several coats of paint. These film surfaces can be very porous to Oxygen, allowing this gas to enter into the slow trap reactions taking place.
There are restrictions with the "wetting" process due to mutual compatibility, pressure and temperature differentials between the liquid and the solid. Molecular compatibility is necessary for wetting. Moderately high temperatures are required in electrical soldering to melt the tin-lead solder allowing the liquid metal to wet the surface of the work. All the metals involved must be at the same high temperature. Resin solder is melted on the soldering iron tip, so that it flows onto the pre-heated work, wetting the components, to solidify on cooling, linking the components and the Copper tracks as a conductive glue. If the work is not pre-heated, the wetting is incomplete, the solder joint fails to be fully conductive. Generally, as the metal cools, the resin acts as wetting agent, forming a compatible layer a single molecule thick to become an integral part of the electric circuit. If the resin is too thick, it can act as an insulator, or a rectifier, as a dry-joint.
This process is carried out in the presence of a wetting agent called a resin or flux. Conventional 60-40 solder (Sn-Pb, Tin-Lead) will not wet steel or aluminium wires, unless other wetting agents are used. Often the resin turns out to be an extremely powerful acid that allow incompatible metals to be united. The same principles apply to the use of a soap or a detergent to link oil and water together, or to wet plastics. Most plastics will be wet by most oils.
Liquid water wets cold steel, however temperature compatibility and molecular resonance makes it almost impossible to wet materials like red hot steel, even with super heated water. At such high temperatures the attraction of water to water is apparently greater than the attraction to steel, yet molecules already attacked to the surface increase the rusting mechanisms. Water beads like the solder above the incompatible surface, showing a surface tension effect. Beading of water will occur at normal temperatures, such as when water drops fall on an oily or plastic surface.
The force of gravity assists in the wetting process. Gravity forces the water molecules to flow and wet many materials that would not normally wet. Examples include glass and plastic. In weightless conditions, water forms a ball which can bounces off the sides of the confinement vessel without wetting the vessel. Only when the vessel is atomically compatible, or the vessel is spun in a centrifuge, does the bouncing ball wet the vessel. Other materials at room temperature actively resist the wetting process ausing the water to bead on the material's surface, or the material to bead. Some soils will not wet irrespective of the quantity of water used.
These events point to the fact that when the molecules in a liquid are attracted to a solid, they do so chemically through magnetic attraction and resonance. When a magnetically compatible liquid is used on the same surface, it wets. Most plastic polymers are wet by oils but these have a magnetic incompatibility to water. When a detergent or soap is dissolved in water, a wet coupling takes place to the detergent and then the detergent makes a wet coupling to the polymers (plastics) and the oils. Detergents and soaps act as a mutual wetting agent, linking specific types of incompatible molecules together, where the detergent must be compatible to the molecules being united. A detergent will not link water to super heated steel, however it will link water to most oils at normal temperature and pressure.
Dissolving presents a massive problem, because it is not understood or explained particularly well by chemists. Here many "false beliefs" and contradictory definitions are promoted without question or proof. When a substance is dissolved in water, the conductivity, optical density and optical polarization may change. The purpose of this wet discussion is to define "the normal situation". Often "normal" is considered to refer or relate to conditions of standard temperature and pressure. Normal must refer to terrestrial conditions, that only exist on this planet. "Wetting" therefore concerns the events taking place at the atomic level at the interface between solid and non-solid.
To discuss any atomic process in the real world environment with gravity will only give false conclusions. All atomic and molecular processes must be discussed at the atomic level, so unless otherwise stated, "normal" must be qualified to refer to events taking place at the atomic level. Not yet can pressure and temperature enter the discussion, because, like so many things, they are not understood. Be it the process of dissolving into a solid, a liquid or a gas, the applicable Natural law states the most magnetically active molecule does the dissolving and controls the chemical reactions taking place.
Dissolving is a minor chemical reaction where spill fields hold and maintain molecular connections in a liquid or solid crystal structure. Evaporation, sublimation, ablation and molecular movement are all dissolving processes, and as such are normally reversible reactions. Only compatible atoms will react in this way, however, some gasses which should not dissolve or react with anything are found in the atmosphere at virtually every site, being dissolved by the air. Helium is an inert gas. By definition, it is displaced and escapes from the Earth, rising into and above the Ozone layer, yet it is found at sea level. On mass, it is obvious that Helium is so light, a molecular mass of only 4 amu, that it must rise. This is a terrestrial illusion. Ask, "How is Helium manufactured?" All one needs to do is to liquefy air, and as a trace element, Liquid Helium is released at a certain freezing point. Although Helium is diamagnetic, it still has some magnetic attraction to local molecules. Generally formed from the recombination of alpha particles, the inert gas is held in the atmosphere at all altitudes and circulated with the winds. Magnetically, even though 50% of the atom is repelled by external magnetic fields, the atmosphere must be viewed as a solution having a crystal structure, linking all atmospheric molecules together. Without this being so, the magnetic compass would fail to work and the air would be opaque to all magnetic radiation.
Hydrogen attaches itself to another Hydrogen because the two atoms resonate together, linking magnetically, forming a tight diamagnetic molecule, with a strong bond at each end of each pole of the Hydrogen atom. Any reaction that will break this bond will only take place if energy is applied to the Hydrogen molecule that forces one bond in the structure to break, changing it from the diamagnetic H¤H structure to the open linear magnetic molecule as H-H, as a dart, that seeks out other magnetic atoms to attack. As this molecule opens, its magnetic field is altered, causing energy to be transmitted as all the magnetic fields in that region respond to the changing magnetic conditions. The field change influences all other matter in the region, breaking apart other magnetic molecules. Oxygen also exists in a diamagnetic pair but the spill fields develop a much stronger paramagnetic effect. When placed in a strong magnetic field, the shape of the molecules are distorted, so that they align and stretch out along the field direction.
To mix Hydrogen and Oxygen gasses together forms a homogeneous crystal arrangement, so that when the energy is raised, the reaction is sudden. Normally, most Hydrogen (H2) burn rates are very slow because there is no pre-mixing. Once the reaction starts, the liberation of energy maintains the energy transfer and continuation of the reaction until only Water vapour remains. In 1937, the Hindenburg, a Hydrogen filled Zeppelin caught fire. In this tragedy the speed of the Hydrogen burn rate was very slow, being retarded by the fabric of the airship and the immediate access to atmospheric Oxygen. If two meteorological balloons (about 1 metre diameter) are filled with equal quantities of Hydrogen, a rather novel and relatively dangerous experiment can be video taped. This is not an experiment to carry out in the kitchen. Very carefully, add to one of the balloons half that volume again of Oxygen. Be extremely careful as this mixture forms an instant bomb that requiring very little energy to trigger the explosion. Support each balloon on a mast and with the camera running, stand well back. Use a remote controlled electrical spark to ignite each, one at a time. The video tape can be played back frame by frame to reveal the different reaction speeds. The Hydrogen-Oxygen mixture explodes so suddenly, that it is over within a 20 frames, while the pure Hydrogen explosion may take almost 50 frames (1 second) to burn.
The explosion of the Hydrogen-Oxygen mix in the balloon is very interesting. As the energy level is raised, the Oxygen molecules begin to open first, representing a dynamic threat forcing the Hydrogen molecule to break and similarly open. Hydrogen does not get the chance to form a dart as the opening trap of the Oxygen molecule pulls the diamagnetic pair into it, bridging an O-O gap. This impact, the changes in the magnetic fields and the magnetic energy twists the H-H bond to break whereupon both Hydrogen atoms each fill an Oxygen gap giving rise to the molecule H-O-O-H or H2O2. This unstable molecule has a very weak bond that is apt to break grabbing another Hydrogen molecule and ripping it apart. Again the magnetic forces of repulsion twists the molecule H4O2 breaking it into two separate but magnetically linked water molecules. The magnetic fields of each molecule collapse and begin to restore, liberating more energy which actively shakes apart other Oxygen molecules. With each action, the magnetic fields reverberate releasing considerable energy during the reaction stage, enough to cause other molecules to separate and combine.
The conventional chemical expression for water as H2O is not true in Nature, because Nature does not work that quickly or that suddenly. Nature is efficient and takes the path of least resistance in all situations, where one process, the most active, takes place, one at a time, in one instant, followed by a reaction at a later instant of time. The conventional equation does not consider the processes involved. In the real world, the following reactions are not immediately true.
2H2 + O2 ---> 2 H2O
nor is
2 H2O2 ---> 2 H2O + O2
Both of these reactions are very slow compared to that of rocket fuel, where two fuels are mixed in the rocket's explosion chamber, such as Hydrogen peroxide and Nitrogen dihydride (H2O2 + N2H4). As they mix, the reaction is virtually instantaneous, where the unstable Oxygen-Hydrogen trap molecule breaks apart as either H2O + O or as 2 OH in a violent reaction, to attack the unstable N2H4 molecule expelling Nitrogen and water vapour. The ferocity of the reaction is so great and the changes in the local magnetic environment, so powerful, that the concrete launch pad will melt, fusing into a glass, due to the rapid absorption and cooling of the Silica based materials, but that is another reaction.
From the shape of a snow crystal, Oxygen must have two gaps in the same Coterie. These gaps can be repositioned around the coterie ring from a side by side orientation to normal separation (H2O). The picture of the atomic magnetic field is clouded by the conventional view of magnetism with a classic North and South pole structure. Magnetism can be pulsed seemingly to exist without a structure. In the water molecule each North-South Hydrogen atom is clamped in place across the Oxygen atom's coterie gaps, forming spill fields, that could be best described as horns.
The toroidal magnetic field of Oxygen forms the resonant magnetic field. As the activity in the atom increases, the frequency of the elpron rotation increases at a linear rate. The rolling of the Hydrogen atoms in the Oxygen gaps produce a sympathetic resonant field. The hole configuration is such that both Hydrogen atoms align in the same magnetic direction in the same coterie. This is quite a different structure which could be best described as a radiating pole toroidal field. At the gap, where the Hydrogen atom now exists, there is a tiny gap field at each end which allows two or more water molecules to link together. This link between energy transfer between neighbouring molecules is the magnetic gap and then magnetic resonance before throughput. Due to the size and spacing of the magnetic field, water molecules are greatly attracted to other water molecules.
This leads to an explanation of a rather interesting problem. A detergent or a soap is used to connect oils to water. Later this will be treated in greater depth, but for now, consider why petrol and oil float on water, yet do not mix with water. It must seem very odd that water vapour at the same time has such a great affinity to petrol and aviation fuel, virtually being dragged out of the atmosphere to settle on the bottom of the fuel tank. There are two possible explanations here. The first being that the affinity is caused by the water and petrol being magnetically resonant but incompatible chemically. This could be true until one examines the structure of the Carbon atom to determine the validity of the hypothesis. The molecules are incompatible, so throw that idea out. The second and most probable scenario is that when the petrol molecules evaporate, the attraction of water contaminated air molecules to the petrol is greater, but so is the repulsion of the petrol molecule to the water molecule, causes the water to be dumped from the air solution, causing the water to sink through the petrol. A molecular substitution takes place. At the bottom of the tank, the affinity of water to water is so great that liquid water masses together.
Petrol and air form an explosive mixture at a particular temperature, pressure and concentration. Not a recommended is the following dangerous experiment, but it is quite possible to throw a lit match into a bucket of petrol without an explosion taking place. For this non-event experiment, many contributing factors explain why the match extinguishes in the petrol without the explosion, including the humidity and the shock front caused by the flame travelling through the atmosphere. This is not a perfect experiment, for there is still a high probability of an explosion.
To animate the magnetic fields around the Oxygen atom reveals a fixed organizational structure, but a flexible design where differing molecular bonding angles occur at different energy levels and local pressure. This is evidenced when simple Oxygen products form or when they are placed in a stressed condition. Ice can exhibit many different crystal forms depending on pressure, concentration and the stress caused by "impurities". The magnetic field structure of the water molecule shows why this is so. The two Hydrogen atoms form an effective double gap magnetic field structure at a precise latitude band, running with the band. The two water molecules formed when Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen link together. The double gap effectively forms H4O2 preventing each water molecule coming to close together and so, the molecules always connect in a certain geometric order in a three dimensional geometric array. Liquid water is not a random hotch-potch of molecules, it is a crystal structure array. The water molecules develop into a strange closest packed configuration, making the liquid incompressible.
The big problem with Oxygen is that when two Oxygen atoms exist as a molecule O2; the two atoms align with their coterie gaps united. This places the two atoms in opposite directions, one with the off-set East West axis vertically up and the other with the opposite axis downward. In so doing, there are no apparent external magnetic fields from the O2 molecule until it is excited. Oxygen exists but will not form a solid crystal structure, so the chances of the O2 molecules forming a solid is extremely low. To form solid Oxygen demands that the coterie link is pulled open, to exist as either O-O or 2O. Pouring liquid Oxygen onto the pole pieces of a strong industrial horseshoe magnet breaks the coterie link forcing the Oxygen to open up like a veritable trap. Due to the low temperature, the less dense green Oxygen solid forms as the molecules align to the external magnetic field. In the normal conditions, the normal diamagnetic field of the Oxygen molecule O2 creates a situation where two or more O2 molecules are prevented from linking together until their structure is upset by some magnetic change (the addition of energy). Once the Oxygen atom breaks, it becomes a super magnet. O2 does not have any particles in the coterie gaps, so the link is purely magnetic and relatively weak, hence, when the atoms in the molecule develop different resonant conditions, the molecule opens up to become a vicious magnetic attacker.
In water, the coterie gap is filled with the Hydrogen elpron spinning in close proximity to the Oxygen component, virtually within its magnetic coterie holes. Although the electron responds to the magnetic field's transference of energy, as part of the magnetic field coupling, a free electric component is non-existent. Electric fields do permeate water because these are observed in the designed to fail experiment, but it is a different electric field to that which one accepts as an electric field. An electric field is a molecular wind flow in the medium. In the atmosphere, freedom allows a bidirectional flow, while in the compaction of a liquid, a different flow is seen.
To shelve a simple illusion, the "Doff effect" is observed when a fine stream of water passes near the surface of a medium which has a high static charge. Around a charged object like a comb, the static charges on the comb jump to air molecules, altering the air molecules magnetic moments and giving rise to a molecular wind, seemingly to force the water towards and away from the comb. The "Doff effect" can be answered through questions dealing with molecular atmospheric effects where the principles of aeronautics are applied to the water column, as the air rushes to or from the comb.
This experiment can be taken further through the use of different heat conductive electrodes to observe crystal growth especially in regards to different molecules in solutions (sugar, alcohol, salts, oxides, etc.) These are valuable experiments which lead from this peculiar experiment.
The chemist often refers to the statement that when an acid and a base react, the products are salt and water. Common salt water is alkaline on the Ph (acidity) scale and extremely corrosive to Iron, Copper and Zinc, so it is argued by the chemist that the salt breaks apart to forms ions in solution, which then attack the metal. Although this ion concept, has been challenged by the expression "whole molecules alter water's crystal matrix" further proof is needed. The Ice experiment gives that proof but also offers many secondary observations which are extremely important. The linear salt molecule NaCl alters the water matrix to form a solution molecule which has an acid water alignment at one end and a stronger base water alignment at the other. The gap fields of the magnetic bonds holding Sodium and Chloride together leak, allowing two water molecules to be impinge at the bond site linking the Sodium and Chloride atoms, as parasites, illustrated below in one dimension. In Nature, this structure is three dimensional and has specific concentration limitations
Even in the region around the experiment, in the atmosphere there are reactions occurring above the salt solution but not above the distilled water, illustrating the liquid crystal nature of the atmosphere. Although both electrodes are virtually identical and their terminals not electrically connected, the salt-ice terminals starts to oxidize growing ice-salt crystal structures beneath the plastic insulation from the solution to the now, blue-green electrode. Only the saline solution that was electrically tested does this. The "frost free" refrigerator keeps the air moving where over a period of several months, the level of ice in both vessels has ablated, showing that the moving air is causing the solid ice to evaporate. After several months in the freezer, a voltmeter connected to the terminals of the salt solution reveals a fluctuating potential difference from 17.5 to 28 mV while that of the distilled water ice shows a greater potential difference as high as 40 mV across the terminals. This is quite surprising because the solid is supposed to stop the reactions taking place as the crystal structure should lock the molecules in place. This observation points to activity occurring at the water crystal-Copper electrode interface and the moving air forming a circuit through the terminal-air interface. Even though the potential difference is low, electrons are flowing in the air due to chemical reactions occurring in the ice. As the ice melts, the intensity of the potential difference in the salt solution increases, while the distilled water decreases. The severely corroded air attacked terminal is the negative terminal. The other terminal develops a blackish colour, even under the insulator material.
When the distilled water ice vessel is turned around to face the opposite direction, the old positive terminal becomes the negative terminal, showing a thermocoupling effect indicating very strongly that either;
Whatever the cause, deep in the ice of the saline solution both electrodes have been suitably corroded. The Copper salts and oxide formed are insoluble, yet are held in the ice matrix staining the ice to a radius of about 1 cm showing either a rapid migration of Copper atoms from the electrodes during the freezing stage, or a slow atomic migration in the ice. The migration of Copper atoms and molecules through the solution is fundamental to the electroplating process. In this case, the solution is not capable of moving, so it must be that Copper enters the solution rather quickly, then holds that low concentration.
When common salt (NaCl) is dropped into pure water, it should only dissolve and do nothing else because it is a relatively stable alkaline salt. It is a very tight small molecule, so much so that to remove the Sodium from the Chlorine takes a great deal of energy (electrolysis of the solid). Just the make up of the Sodium and Chlorine atoms indicates a very tight machine and gearbox, giving off a great deal of energy. There are different forms of this salt, from the NaCl made in the laboratory (the spontaneous chemical reaction where Sodium burns in Chlorine gas in an environment totally free of water vapour), to that deposited from the sea, found as rock deposits, or the crystallized form where the presence of water vapour grows the common salt crystal structure. NaCl can exist as the dimer Na2 Cl2 due to its own self-trapping mechanism. Again Chemistry ignores the presence of water in common salt. The dimer exists when there is no water present, but as soon as water vapour invades the dimer, it forms the common crystal shape structure of NaCl.
To take the purist's logical approach. If molecules disassociate to form "ions in solution" then some amazing perpetual reactions must occur. When Sodium Chloride is dissolved, classic chemical theory states that it disassociates into its constituent Sodium (Na+) and Chlorine (Cl-) ions. This would indicate that the water molecule is incredibly powerful and that the chemical bonds of Sodium Chloride are broken. If such were the case, then the water must either infinitely boil owing to the intense reactions with Sodium, or the water would freeze solid because of the energy required to continually break the Sodium-Chlorine bond. When common salt dissolves, the solution gets just a little colder.
Breaking the Sodium and Chlorine bond is tricky. Any free Sodium in the Water would immediately react with the water to form Sodium hydroxide, liberating Hydrogen. The Chlorine could also react with the Hydrogen and water to form Hydrochloric Acid. Putting Sodium hydroxide anywhere near Hydrochloric acid is something to avoid at the best of times. Such a combination vigorously forms Sodium Chloride and Water, along with a great deal of heat. Sodium Chloride breaks down into ions, which would react with water, so that a constant energy outpouring would occur in a perpetual chain reaction forever if the laws of Chemistry are taken to the letter.
Sodium Chloride is held together by a very strong locking bond. Amazing must be the story of the world's great Oceans. How much Sodium and Chlorine exists as ions in the Ocean? Why, when sea water evaporates in special pools does sea salt grow without the smell of Chlorine or Sodium Hydroxide? Surely the probability of having 5% more of one type of ion would upset the crystal development? When questions about ions are expressed this way, Chemistry appears to be using a rather inept and invalid concept. It is historically very apparent that the most obvious and simplest scenario to explain solubility has not even been considered by Chemistry. Chemists have used the wrong frame of reference to base a misguided theory formed on observational illusions, so what is seen is what happens, rather than what happens causes what is perceived to occur. The research methodology was breached and a conclusion reached which is in error. To look at the mechanical atom at this point, something important and rather intriguing happens for when any chemical is dissolved in water, the chemistry becomes absolutely fascinating. When reactions are considered as common place, few realize the importance or their significance.
Sodium Chloride is linked through water molecules to other Sodium Chloride molecules in the crystal form as Water-Salt-Water, layer by layer. When a salt crystal enters a huge volume of water, the water saturates the Sodium Chloride molecule, presenting a force greater than the water of crystallization, which literally rips the surface Sodium Chloride atoms from the crystal. This now exposes the water of crystallization layer to the water, so the next layer of Sodium Chloride is already in total contact with the water, so it peels off as the next layer of Sodium Chloride, until all the Sodium Chloride enters the solution as unique whole molecules. As the crystal dissolves, individual Sodium Chloride molecules attach themselves through magnetic bonds to the water molecules, changing the liquid crystal structure of water. These salt molecules change the water matrix establishing a new matrix by rotating the water molecules, replacing the water-water inter-molecular bonds with solution bonds effectively becoming H2O:NaCl:H2O chains. The Sodium Chloride enter the water matrix as complete and individual Sodium Chloride molecules. Thus, molecular integrity is maintained.
The chemical attack by the NaCl changes the properties of the water by aligning the water molecules in such a way that the three dimensional structure will allow the passage of high electrical currents. The greater the amount of salt dissolved, the lower the resistance until the solution becomes saturated. Any electrodes or test probes placed in the solution will be immediately attacked as the molecule H2O:NaCl:H2O is a strong acid and an equally strong base. The corrosive nature of salt and sea water to metals is well realized.
In the kitchen environment, common salt in the salt shaker attracts water vapour from the atmosphere causing several domestic problems from corrosion to blockages (when trying to pour the salt until some other product (like rice) is used to maintain a water balance). The attraction of free water molecules to the Sodium Chloride molecule is greater than the water of crystallization which holds the Sodium Chloride crystals together. The surface molecules on the Sodium Chloride crystal attract other water molecules, so much so that the salt molecule will surround itself with water molecules stolen from the air, linking to others. Atmospheric water vapour does not dissolve the salt, rather the salt dissolves the atmospheric water. Additional humidity then acts as a glue between the exposed crystals effectively growing a salt crust in the salt container.
Another example of this is seen when Copper sulphate crystals grow in a Copper sulphate solution. Copper sulphate dissolves slowly in water. Often energy must be added to concentrate the solution. For crystal growth the solution must become saturated or extremely concentrated. This is achieved by slowly cooling and allowing evaporation to increase the concentration of the Copper sulphate. After all the water is dissolved and the evaporation complete, transparent blue glass like crystals remain. The crystal is robust and maintains its strong blue colour no matter how long it is left. There is a great deal of water held firmly in the crystal which will not immediately evaporate, because they are locked in place between the Copper sulphate molecules. Heating the crystals of Copper sulphate causes an incompatibility where the water dumps sulphate and escapes as water vapour leaving a fine white powder. Add Water or leave it exposed to the air and the powder returns to the blue Copper sulphate. So the formula of Copper sulphate must refer to the water of crystallization unless otherwise stated.
The magnetic field associated with the water to water attraction is so great, many other types of salt crystals (especially those with water of crystallization) dissolve in water. Dissolving is a minor chemical reaction where the constituent molecules do not chemically react, or said another way, do not cause the components to burn. When water is burnt chemically, then and only then do real Hydroxides and Hydrides form. One such example is the reaction between Sodium and water. Water molecules come off second best in this attack as the Hydrogen atoms are displaced, giving rise to Sodium Hydroxide, then Sodium Oxide and liberating Hydrogen at each stage, but then Hydrogen forms Hydrogen gas, H2.
There are many crystals which do not require water of crystallization to form, such as Diamond and Quartz. Often these are insoluble salts and elements due to the total incompatibility to the magnetic field and the resonant behaviour of water molecules. Even in the soluble salts there are many which at first are attracted to their own kind so powerfully and so uniformly that the field strength of the water molecule is far to weak and will not cause any separation until the heat of the water reaches a point where molecular compatibility occurs. Quartz has an extremely difficult molecule to prize apart even with persistent wetting, yet it does dissolve and can be found as traces in sea water. Some salts require compatibility to dissolve, where the solution's concentration is dependent on the environmental temperature and pressure.
In some cases, what is believed to be the salt dissolving in water is the reverse, where the water is actually dissolved by the salt. This is the case with Sodium Chloride where the magnetic attraction of the salt molecule to water is greater than the field holding the water molecules together.Typically, when a salt dissolves in water, the water molecules are saturated, greatly outnumbering the salt molecules, so the salt's molecular matrix is ripped apart, separating the salt into individual molecules, whereas, in the case of powerful salts, the water matrix is pulled apart. Gold, Copper, Silver and Aluminium are metals which seemingly do not dissolve, yet in some streams, analysis of the water shows molecular metals held in suspension. Each year, thousands of tons of molecular Gold from rings and jewellery are washed down the kitchen sinks of this planet, ending up in the oceans. Copper deposits are responsible for many poisoned water holes. Dissolving does not include the many chemicals that burn water, forcing full chemical reaction, such as the reactions with pure Sodium and Calcium, though the reaction products do form a solution as these products are dissolved.
Molecules which dissolve the water include many Sugars and Alcohols. The optical and electrical properties of the water are strongly altered exhibiting a marked polarization or transparency change. The higher the concentration of the active impurity, the greater the change in the solution's properties. The concentration of sugar changes the polarization of light passing through the solution. The type of sugar can shift the polarization angle to the left or right, which states that the sugar type actively modifies the water matrix. This states categorically, Water is crystalline.
The most active chemical controls the reaction. Often, this fine distinction goes unnoticed because most chemical research uses "saturation techniques" to test solubility. Invariably, a small quantity of some material is dissolved in a massive quantity of water, so the full process of dissolving goes totally unnoticed, for it becomes impossible to identify whether the water, or the salt is dissolved. Dissolving is the process where the more powerful molecular field rips apart the matrix of the weaker molecular structure to form a new matrix around the stronger molecule.
A simple method of chemical plating uses the activity series. When Iron is cleaned until it shines, then placed in a strong bath of Copper Sulphate solution, a reaction occurs where the Iron and Copper atoms are exchanged, forming ferric sulphate (iron sulphate) and depositing Copper on the surface of the Iron. The problem with the process is the fact that the solution contains two active ingredients, the Sulphate and Water. The water is strongly attracted to the Iron and although the Copper replaces the surface Iron molecules, the water attack continues on the Iron atoms beneath the Copper acting as a catalyst to further Oxygen's attack on the Iron. Having water beneath the Copper causes the coating to become porous, so the wet encased Iron soon begins to rust. This initial substitution reaction takes place in the environment of a water based solution, so any water present in a reaction must be considered in that reaction. The following formula shows the water of crystallization and the solution as being both a reactant and a product. Failure to include these will lead to an incorrect visualization of the process:-
Generally, plating of one metal on another requires that energy be supplied by way of a circuit. One electrode will be consumed while the other takes on a new surface coating. In the early days of Chemistry it was noted that when two different metals were used for the electrodes in the presence of an acid or a base, a flow of electricity occurred. Electrons seemed to be the mechanism of the chemical bonds, so the concept of electrochemical bonding was brought into being. Further investigation and the placement of the elements into similar reactivity groups gave rise to the invention of the periodic table which seemed to confirm electrochemical theory. Everything appeared as if these early chemists had made the correct deductions linking chemical reactions to the bonding mechanism.
The facts seemed to speak for themselves, since a chemical with a valency of three, transferred three electrons in the electrochemical process. Physicists and research chemists slowly built up a table of reactions and energies called the activity series, which seemed to link electron output to the valency. Many books of Chemistry indicate precise steps between valency and the electrochemical activity of the elements used as the electrodes where the same acid or base is used as the electrolyte solution. One would expect that if one electron came from atom "x", two came from atom "y" and three from atom "z" then each must have a precise one electron difference in voltage. These steps are not at all, precise, as illustrated in table 20-1. Such irregularities cannot be simply explained away using conventional Chemistry.
| Reducing Agents | EO Volts | Oxidising Agents | EO Volts |
| K+ + e- | -2.93 | Cu+ + e- | 0.34 |
| Na+ + e- | -2.71 | 1/2 F2+ e- | 2.87 |
| Ba2+ + 2e- | -2.90 | 1/2 Cl2(aq) + e- | 1.40 |
| Ca2+ + 2e- | -2.87 | 1/2 Cl2(g) + e- | 1.36 |
| Mn2+ + 2e- | -1.18 | 1/2 Br2(aq) + e- | 1.09 |
| Zn2+ + 2e- | -0.76 | 1/2 Br2(l) + e- | 1.07 |
| Fe2+ + 2e- | -0.44 | 1/2 I2(aq) + e- | 0.62 |
| Pb2+ + 2e- | -0.13 | 1/2 I2(s) + e- | 0.54 |
| Al3+ + 3e- | -1.66 | Cu2+ + 2e- | 0.34 |
| Fe3+ + 3e- | -0.02 | Fe3+ + e- | 0.77 |
The problem is that the voltages quoted in table 20-1 are not related to precise quantum steps since integer values of electrons are released in each of the chemical reactions. All single electron events, all double electron events, all triple electron events should give precise electron differences.
To complicate matters, there are more aberrations and exceptions to the rule. The oxidation of Fe3+ + e- to Fe2+ presents 0.77 Volts. However the reduction of Fe3+ + 3e- to Fe(s) is -0.02 V while that of Fe2+ + 2e- to Fe(s) is -0.44V. The extrapolated value for a single electron change does not equate. These voltages are related to the half cell reaction of Hydrogen. In the various forms of the activity series, the values can relate to different numbers of electrons, for instance, Aluminium may be quoted at 1.66 V, yet it refers to three electrons Al3+ + 3e- is -1.66V. Often, other aberrations are thrown into the half cell reactions such as full chemical equations like
which only serves to complicate and confuse the student. The voltage given out by an electrochemical cell is determined by the equation
but this gives a negative result implying that a voltage greater than or equal to 0.42 Volts of electrical energy is needed to force the reaction. This is very odd. The Daniell cell configuration was one of the earliest known sources of spontaneous electrical current.
When the salt bridge is replaced by a Zinc electrode in the Zinc Sulphate bath and a Copper electrode in the Copper Sulphate bath, the cell fails to work, showing that the salt bridge is necessary in the equation. The question must be asked, "What is the salt bridge doing and how does it work?" The classic Daniell cell set-up shows a definite electron flow from the Zinc electrode, and a build up of Copper on the Copper electrode as the Zinc electrode is denudes.
Rarely, if ever is there any discussion involving the reactions of the Salt bridge to the Zinc Sulphate and the Copper Sulphate solutions. Chemistry avoids this "nasty" by stating that "Cations" flow up the Zinc Sulphate side of the salt bridge passing "Anions" travelling in the opposite direction from the Copper sulphate. This molecular movement could be so, but one must be very careful in the electrolysis process to include anything that may react, such as the Nitric Acid thrown into the bath. One should be very careful in drawing an experimental conclusion too early.
In this bath, the Copper plating is directly attributed to the breakdown of Copper Sulphate. Once all the Copper Sulphate is eaten up, the reaction should cease. Chemistry states that all the sulphate ions migrate through the salt bridge to the Zinc Sulphate bath. The salt bridge is typically Potassium Chloride. The action of the salt bridge makes for some really messy chemistry because of the complex reactions taking place. The Potassium and the Chlorine atoms must become involved in the cell's chemistry, as must the water. When this experiment is taken to its limits (where all the Copper is robbed from the Copper Sulphate), the truth will be seen in the composition of the "pure water" left in this bath. This must be almost "pure" since all the Copper has been dumped on the electrode and its sulphate transferred across the bridge to the other bath. As all the anions are sulphate ions, then what constitutes the cations travelling in the opposite direction? If they are Zinc then there should be a build up of Zinc somewhere. In devising an explanation of the reactions, there is no need to consider or use the explanation of mysterious Cations and Anions, rather there is a need to consider whole molecules in solution. The frame of reference is at the atomic level.
Many salt bridges work by good luck rather than by design. Some salts are just not applicable for use in this configuration even though the bridge satisfies the basic requirements where it is both porous and wet. In the earliest known Daniell cell a totally non-reactive porous screen (such as sandstone) was used as a partition to keep the Zinc Sulphate away from the Copper Sulphate. This makes the Chemistry a great deal simpler. Copper is stolen from the Copper Sulphate, deposited on the Copper electrode, while Zinc is robbed from the Zinc electrode entering the solution increasing the concentration of Zinc Sulphate, Zinc Oxide, Zinc Hydride, and Zinc Hydroxide. As the reaction continues, the presence of Copper Sulphate should totally vanish showing a definite movement of the "what appears to be" sulphates into the Zinc bath. This is an illusion where many different molecules cross the boundary. The most dominant molecules controlling the reactions are the faces of water and a powerful acid. Both Copper Sulphate and Zinc Sulphate must be viewed as a metal oxide attached to the SO3 radical. This bond is the easiest bond to break allowing the Sulphur Trioxide to do some mean things in water. Strip the metal oxide from Sulphate in the presence of water and several chemical reaction occur, one of which forms Sulphuric acid OH2:SO3. Sulphuric acid attacks Zinc really well dumping Hydrogen to form Zinc Sulphate, however there is a great deal more happening. It requires logic to step through the reactions as Nature does, because in the Daniell cell the Hydrogen is given off at the Anode, from the Copper not the Zinc. Oxygen is captured in the solution reactions just as happened in the "designed to fail" experiment, and the water molecules align around the electrode as in the Ice experiment.
The first step in explorative research is to establish the fundamental reactions, so every possible combination of reaction between the metal sulphate and the water to the metal electrodes must be postulated in simple unbalanced equations, for both the anode, and the cathode, even if they do not seem logical at the time. There is a restriction in this process which states that only one bond breaking reaction is allowed each time the molecule strikes the electrode or another molecule, therefore the reaction from point A to point B may go through several steps. As one of the chemicals formed could be Sulphuric acid, the picture of this electrolysis reaction changes dramatically. The porous wall must be considered as a constriction zone forcing chemical reactions at both interfaces and through the wall. To confuse the issues, the more dominant chemicals like Sulphuric acid may immediately react with other products in the solution causing secondary reactions. The second step considers all the simple reactions taking place in each bath and in the constriction zone when chemicals meet. Some reactions will never take place unless in the presence of a catalyst. Other reactions in the presence of water are doomed to failure. Most salt bridges use alkaline salts, which as Davy discovered almost 200 years ago, the only method of electrolysis that works on alkaline salts, is to perform the electrolysis on the dry salt. Contemplate for a moment the processes occurring between a water based solution and an alkaline Salt bridge.
The electron differentials will cause a catalytic reaction in the electrolysis bath where some reaction products may precipitate from the solution as a chemical ash.
Anode half cell solution
OH2:OZn:SO3:H2O + H2O
Anode Reaction Simple versions
Zn + H2O ---> OH2:Zn, OH2:ZnO, OH2:ZnOH, OHZnOH, OH2:ZnH2:H2O
Zn + ZnO:SO3 + H2O ----> OH2:SO3 , OH2:ZnOHO:H2O, OH2:ZnO:H2O
,
OH2:ZnH2O:H2O, HO, Zn O , H2O
Although Copper is deposited, the reactions identify the fact that the Copper is still being attacked, only to be deposited later. This is like a game where to put down two or three pawns on the goal line, the player must pick up one pawn at the goal line, score trading goods from the goal before running to the other end of the field where two more pawns can only be collected by exchanging the goods for the pawns. In this exercise, just as the Zinc is attacked, so is the Copper but not to the same degree, hence there is a build up of Copper.
The porous wall is quite fascinating because it seems to act as a constriction zone during the cell's operating cycle. Towards the end of the reaction, the fluid pressure differential between the reaction cells may decrease allowing Zinc Sulphate to enter the Water cell. One could suggest that this is a capillary syphon where reactions occur in the porous wall.
In the real sense, electrons are not being liberated, nor are they being created. The reaction is producing a potential difference because of the molecular action and an alignment. The alignment of the water literally pumps the electrons around the circuit due to pressure. At no point are electrons lost or absorbed. This is a provable fact since it is a Law of Nature. Electrons are not created, used, or destroyed. Magnetic molecules force electrons through the electrode reactions through pressure. Eelectrons then flow through the conductor are a consequence of the reaction direction and the alignment of the water molecules not as a product of the reaction. To state that chemical reaction "x-y-z" liberates an electron is not a balanced equation. To run an electric motor or an electric lamp, requires two terminals, a positive terminal and a negative terminal. If electrons were "liberated" in the reaction, the motor or the lamp must work with only the negative terminal connected, but this cannot be so. It must be balanced where as an electron is pushed into the conductor, an electron must replace it, else the process increases the resistance until that electron is replaced. Each electron gained or lost, changes the magnetic moment and alignments of the reaction products. As these molecules migrate through the bath without any guidance, chemical cells are manufactured in such a way as to facilitate a more directed movement of chemical reactants.
There are many types of battery cells, some of which can be used until discharged, while others can be used again and again. Such rechargeable batteries work by reversing the electrical flow and the chemical processes, where the battery is discharged using the cell's chemical energy, or by charging the battery through supplying electrical energy to re-constitute the chemical bonds. In both processes, the electrons-in equals the electrons-out. The energy absorbed equals the energy available minus losses incurred through electrical throughput and heating. The energy passing through to charge the battery is typically greater than the energy absorbed by the battery due to losses.
In many video camera and mobile phone batteries a so-called "memory-cell" is placed in series with the battery cells. This is a step ladder Integrated circuit, which blows a rung of the ladder every time the battery is charged. Effectively, this circuit increases the internal resistance of the battery, so that it costs more to charge the battery each time the battery is re-charged and the battery discharged. Seemingly the battery appears to wear out after a precise number of battery charging cycles. Manufacturers state that the battery cells must be discharged prior to charging. This ensures that a rung is blown. This is a deliberate ploy to sell more batteries. If the dead battery case is opened and the cells individually checked with a voltmeter to make sure that they all work, then the step ladder circuit can be shorted out or by-passed. Immediately thereafter the battery can be fully re-charged. Eventually a battery cell may fail and this becomes a simple matter of replacing one cell at a cost of a few dollars, compared to the cost of replacing the entire battery pack at a cost of around a hundred dollars or more, when typically, in a 6 volt system there are just 5 x 1.2 V battery cells. Note: Lead-Acid batteries cannot be fixed.
The key to the workings of a battery cell are found in the activity series of the elements, whereby each element in Nature has a different magnetic attraction to other elements, and this is seen in the atom's electronegativity or electropositivity. The process involved will be discussed later, owing to the very nature of the elements and their three dimensional geometry. To understand the mechanisms of the voltaic cell, there are several other keys sought.
The basic problem in understanding chemical reactions is the observation that "to start chemical reactions, some require energy being added to the system, a threshold energy, while other reactions do not". Sodium and Chlorine immediately react, while Hydrogen and Oxygen can exist as a mixture of explosive gasses for years, quite safely, until that moment when the energy of the system is raised, by a naked flame; through heating; atomic excitation; a spark, or the presence of a catalyst, where the resulting explosion may destroy the containment vessel. The answer to this mind posing question requires some thawing.
It is up to the researcher and the reader to challenge, not just the author, but the entire scientific community, to determine where the truth becomes "certainty", so that a full picture of Nature's workings can be explained without using hocus-pocus and the almighty power of uncertainty. Certainty is on a much higher plane than belief, faith and trust. This work crosses many sacred boundaries, in challenging and replacing the claimed "solid foundations" of each science. If the work establishes new foundations to hold the structure of the sciences within the boundaries of the laws of Nature, then the corrections made should satisfy many other questions. It is not necessary to define the questions, because every reader with a basic knowledge in Science, having crossed the bridges in this work, will have the answers and mechanisms at their disposal to a further the thousands of unanswered questions and niggling doubts that are sitting at the back of the mind since childhood. These answers will come to the fore for many more years to come as each answer will add to the extensive list of explanations awaiting publication.
Richard Hull and Peter Grenow experiments on water's explosive power are very fascinating, showing the explosive potential of water. In a simple explosion chamber, a thimble full of water is attacked by an extremely high amperage 12,000 Volt spark. A column of water travels up the barrel of their 'cannon', and is claimed to be travelling at 4,800 Km per hour (3,000 mph). The experimenters further claim a higher output energy than the input.
Analysis of the video tape shown in real time (1 frame = 1/25 th seconds) reveals that this explosion is quite lengthy, from 12 to 30 frames, a duration (0.48 to 1.2 seconds) showing some curious effects. The impact of the explosion at close range is claimed to cut through 1/4" (6.25mm) aluminium plates. Yet the device shown used a piece of veneered timber mounted between the chamber and a light weight barrel sitting on the timber. The initial blast occurs with the flash from the spark, producing a column that travelled upwards, punching a neat hole through the wood. The blast continued with great intensity until the point where the wood block began to move from the gun's chamber. This occurred near the end of the spark's display at frame eleven after start. The spark continues and at 17 frames the wood and the barrel are then being blown clear of the gun's chamber.
This slow motion analysis shows the effect of the rapidly moving steam. But this experiment does not demonstrate energy-from-nowhere, rather it is an expected result where water disassociates and boils at the same time forming a massive volume of steam, Hydrogen and Oxygen, that also reacts and burns, intensifying the explosion powered by the current supplied. Several factors must be considered, for there is the expansion of water into steam, the expansion of released Hydrogen and Oxygen and the explosive power of non-molecular Hydrogen with non-molecular Oxygen into molecular water around the spark. In the correct barrel assembly, this could be a rather lethal long range weapon if the velocity measurements are correct. However...
Although the effect was dramatic, one must suspect the method of velocity determination, since the video images captured the movement of the column. With a normal shutter speed of 0.04 seconds, any reaction involving an exhaust jet travelling at 4,800Km / hour must show an off-on state between successive frames, where there is no jet, them a full jet to the ceiling. It would be exceptionally rare to capture on videotape, the column at a precise height from the barrel,unless one used a frame speed of 10,000 frames per second, well above normal video camera speeds. Yet in the video evidence, from different camera angles and perhaps different cameras or shots, all show, in the initial frames, a precise partial column height, and this was observed several times, suggesting a much slower initial blast. The power of the blast may come later, or with a different pressure barrel, but each demonstration failed to prove the points being made.
There is every likelihood that "dramatic-television-effects" have been used, but this should not degrade the facts or the effect. Simply put, the effect demands more research in controlled conditions, for this may be a very convenient method of placing minerals into a collection orbit from a mining site on the planet Mars.
When one examines the videotape images of a battleship firing its big guns or a cannon firing with real ammunition,(frame by frame), although there is a great deal of chemical pollution released and many different effects seen, the effect of the projectile is off-on, not a slow partial effect. The shell is only seen when the camera view is from behind in the in-line direction of trajectory.
A ten thousand volt shock to a tiny amount of water, creates electrolysis, re-combination, electrolysis and more re-combination, making the explosive mixture work over and over again, until the charge or reactants are lost. It is a most impressive demonstration of water's vicious side and the numerous energy-forms involved.
---------------------- End Chapter 20 NNootes ------------------