www.b-and-t-world-seeds.comMORE FINE DATA SEED AND SHRUBS OF THE WORLD AND LINKS
ANDAshwagandha
Withania somnifera Reports of Use by Reverend MeO "In the land of the blind, this 3rd eyed Ayurvedic herb is king." For all of the information below, 900mg. of a 1 1/2% pure Withanolids extract from the root of Withania somnifera was used -- without any other herbs or medications. THE PULL & THE VISUALS Within about 45 minutes the sedation begins, a tiring and drying effect upon the eyeballs -- eyelids fight to close. Sleep comes very easy at this time. While it is possible to fight the sleep-pull, it is uncomfortable. The behind-the-eye-visuals begin soon after laying down. They are continual and easy to make out. While they are well-defined, they change very often -- with no certain image staying more than 30 seconds. Upon laying down, the body goes still, and you can feel yourself floating. This works well sometimes with the visuals. It is very possible to look down upon your sleeping body. TOLERANCE? There is no large degree of tolerance that builds with continuous use of Ashwagandha. However, if after taking the herb nightly for several weeks,you stop for a night, and then continue the next evening, the visuals are clearer than with steady nightly use. WILL I PAY FOR THE WONDERFUL SLEEP IN THE MORNING? If 8-10 hours of sleep is not allotted, you will wake up feeling mentally and physically "fuzzy". No matter how much sleep you get, eyes will be glossy and lightly red. IS THIS HEALTHY? Health benefits can be found with continual use. A resistance to sickness and an over-all healing effect starts. A friend compared this effect to Ginseng -- I prefer to compare it to Echinacea. PAIN RELIEVER / MUSCLE RELAXANT Oh yeah! With other sedating herbs (Valerian, Skullcap, Passion Flower, et al) my body tends to wake up exhausted -- and with a lower back pain from sleeping too long. This is NOT the case with Ashwagandha. The body wakes up, without any pain at all -- with a warm and soft protective sheen seemingly coating the entire being. If you do suffer from chronic pains (which Ashwagandha relieved), the pains will return about 4-6 hours after waking up -- as it seems that this is the time the herb wears off almost completely. (Total time of action: ~10-12 hours) DREAM RECALL -- LUCIDITY As with many "sleep" supplements (5-HTP, Skullcap, etc...) dream recall is enhanced, even though some of these items are said to decrease REM activity. Some way or another, dream recall and lucidity comes much easier with any of these substances, though. Ashwagandha seems to greatly assist dream recall (not as well as 5-HTP, I must add), and chances of lucidity (once again, not as well as 5-HTP). Eyelids begin to flutter soon after sleep begins. Query NCU-3e Common Name: 'Culebra' Family: Solanaceae Juss. Country of Origin: Columbia - high and geographically isolated Indian village of Sibundoy Habitat: forested slopes of the mountains to the south of the valley of Sibundoy Description: Originally classified as Methysticodendron amesianum by R.E. Schultes in 1955 (Bot. Mus. Leaf., 17, 1, 1955) Description of Methysticodendron Amesianum- R. E. Schultes in Bot. Mus Leafl. Harvard Univ. 17 (1955) 2. Tree up to 25 feet tall, with short, densely leafy branches. Leaves membranaceous, dark green, narrowly linear-ligulate, apically acuminate, basally gradually attenuate (very often without distinct petiole), marginally commonly subundulate or undulate, in adult state 20-26 cm long, 1.3-2.0 cm wide; central nerve strong, beneath strongly elevated, secondary nerves almost parallel, somewhat conspicuous, towards margin arcuateanastomosing; both surfaces minutely and irregularly (near veins denser) pilose. Flowers up to 28 (mostly more or less 23) cm long apically 10-13 cm in diameter in bud, at dusk and night very strongly and sweetly fragant. Calyx spathaceous, green, papyraceous or membranaceous, 2- to 5-parted, with acute teeth, tubiform for half its length, 3/5 as long as corolla (up to 13 cm long), both surfaces very minutely and irregularly pilose. Corolla divided for 3/5-4/5 its length, with lobes usually 5 (but abnormally 4 or 6), membranaceous, white, spreading, spathulate or almost spathulately rhombiform, apically long acuminate, circinnate, entire, upper half strongly inflexed, 14-16 cm long, towards apex of tube usually 6mm. (but in widest part 2.5-3.3 cm) wide, near base very remotely and irregularly pilose within and without, with 3 conspicuous, strongly parallel veins; tube rather densely white-pilose within. Stamens usually 5, shorter than corolla lobes; with terete filaments, more or less 5 cm long, 2 mm in diameter at base, apically strongly twisted and lightly bent, pilose except at apex; anthers yellow, 2.7-3 cm long, 3-4 mm in diameter. Ovary sub-cylindric, conspicuously 3-sulcate, glabrous, up to 1.5 cm long, 0.5 cm in diameter, gradually produced into styles. Styles glabrous, up to more or less 9 cm long, 2.5 mm in diameter, apically slightly clavellate and strongly flattened, with stigmatic tissue on very apex and along adges up to 1-1.5 cm in decurrent form, black (when dry) and papillose. Appendix (rudimentary style?) like styles arising from central part of ovary, up to 5.5 cm long, accompanied by 1 or 2 subclavellate, fleshy appendices 2-5 mm long. Uses: This plant is known only from the valley of Sibundoy where it is employed by the Inga and Kams� Indians in their witchcraft. Its use in each tribe is restricted to several witch-doctors, and these practitioners grow the plant with special care in the neighbourhood of their huts. The wild habitat of the species is said to be the forested slopes of the mountains to the south of the valley of Sibundoy, especially the slopes of the botanically almost completely unknown Cerro Patascoy. When in cultivation, the plant is apparently the hereditary property of certain families, as the sorcerers pass it on to the eldest son together with the secrets attending its use. Restrictions: Poisonous Plant Parts - Not for Human Consumption tropane alkaloids - fatally toxic Accession Data: Accession #: 200200022 Source: Rich Sanders Provenance: Cuttings from Richard Sanders Feb2002. Original material from Andre Hodnik, France ex Sibundry Valley, SW Columbia (only known wild source of this clone) Accession Date: 02/11/02 Bench: 1209 - Solanaceae Qty: 1 confirmed on 06/26/02 Classification: Division: Magnoliophyta Class: Magnoliopsida SubClass: Asteridae Order: Solanales SubOrder: Family: Solanaceae SubFamily: Tribe: SubTribe: Based upon: Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M. J. (1992 onwards). �The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval.� Version: 19th August 1999. http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/. Search Internet: Search Google for this taxon Search Metacrawler for this taxon Class Usage in the past 36 months: None Recorded Material to other institutions in the past 60 months: None Recorded Pesticide applications and bio-control releases in the past 12 months: None Recorded Miscellaneous Notations: None Recorded Credits: Personal communication with Rich Sanders, who provided the cuttings for us. Methysticodendron Amesianum - posted at Lycaeum Website - last visited 04/26/02 Disclaimer: This website contains a large amount of information regarding the plants housed in our diverse collections. This information is gathered from a wide variety of electronic, print and other sources. We have included reference information on each page to denote the original source of such information. More importantly, many of the plants in our collections have reputed medicinal properties according to some sources. We will only reproduce information we believe to be correct, but we make no claims as to the validity of this information. In particular, many plants with medicinal properties are also toxic and frequently FATAL if taken at incorrect dosages or if not prepared in a specific fashion. We do not advocate the consumption of reputed medicinal plant products without prior consultation with your physician or other natural plant products professional. The staff of the EEB Conservatory are not trained medical personnel and information from this website or from personnel affiliated with our facility should be treated as anecdotal information only and not as specific recomendations for usage. We make no claims about the efficacy of any plant or plant part for any specific remedies which may be alluded to on this website. -
Withanias Somnifera-A MAJOR HEALING PLANT FORM INDIA THAT YOU CAN GROW AS A HEDGE ABOUT YOUR HOME!
NEED A RIDE IN CANADA TRY AUTOTAXI.COM!A MAJOR AUTO-PASSENGER LINKUP FOR GETTING ARROUND!
ichinese herb list and western herb 1877#in list reffer 2 site 2 order 4 ref.only here. http://www.herculesengines.com all old engines steam boilers etc. iChineseHerbs.com Chinese Herbs A through B (pin yin names) All quantities are 1 pound unless otherwise noted. All Herbs are Available in Sulphur Free, Chlorine Free, Aluminum Phosphate Free Policy for Wholesale Purchase. iChineseHerbs.com is a wholesale site and qualifications are required to obtain wholesale prices.
(or,ALMOST A PANACEA)
THE PART ABOVE THIS HAS BEEN THE PAGE 2 THIS IS INCLUDED HERE TO SAVE SKIP!
LINK TO CONNECTICUT UNIVERSITY.ED@
Plants For A Future: Database SEARCH ResultsMORE FINE DATA AND LINKS
Withania somniferaAtropa belladonna Brugmansia aurea Brugmansia suaveolens Brugmansia versicolor Brunfelsia pauciflora var. calycina Brunfelsia unidentifed Capsicum chinense Capsicum gemnifolium Capsicum pubescens Cestrum alternifolium Cestrum nocturnum Cyphomandra betacea Iochroma unidentified Lycianthes unidentified Lycium carolinianum Nicotiana glauca Solandra longiflora Solandra maxima Solanum asarifolium Solanum auriculatum Solanum jasminoides Solanum quitoense Solanum seaforthianum Solanum wendlandii Streptosolen jamesonii Withania somnifera Contact:=Ecology & Evolutionary Biology Conservatory & Gardens 75 North Eagleville Rd., Unit 3043 Storrs, CT 06269-3043 Office: (860) 486-0809 Greenhouse: (860) 486-4052 Fax: (860) 486-6364SEARCH THESE RESOURCES ON UNIVERSITY SITE
MORE LINKS-b-and-t-world-seeds.com/sublistsshwagandha
AND
an altogether healing relaxing plantTumors,psorissis,smallpox,ringworm,scabies,cictitis,debility,lumbago,candida,fungicide,andi anthrax sedative,nervine,rhematism,tumors--Steeped in warm castor oil and applied to carbunkle,swillings,-natives used leaves for colds,enama for imfants,roots fo embola,-contains withanolide C28 H35 O6 and somnitol C33 H44 O5
MAIN SEARCH PAGE AND INDEXING WITH PICTURES
s.o.a.p.computer stuff
more soap use engines on main page to search-google.com etc
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal
General information:
Query NCU-3e
Common Name:
Family: Solanaceae Juss.
Country of Origin: Australia, E. Asia, Africa.
Habitat: Open places, disturbed areas etc. shruA stony places.OTHER LIST LOCATIONS,
Distributional range:
Native:
Africa: Algeria; Angola; Botswana; Cape Verde; Chad; Egypt; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Kenya;
Lesotho; Liberia; Libya; Malawi; Mali; Mauritius; Morocco; Namibia; Nigeria; Somalia;
South Africa - Cape Province, Natal, Orange Free State, Transvaal; Spain - Canary Islands;
Sudan; Tanzania; Tunisia; Uganda; Zimbabwe
Asia-Temperate: Afghanistan; Arabia; Iran [s.]; Iraq; Israel; Jordan; Lebanon; Syria; Turkey
Asia-Tropical: India; Pakistan; Sri Lanka
Europe: Greece [incl. Crete]; Italy - Sardinia, Sicily; Spain [incl. Baleares]
Description: Additional Common Names: Ajagandha,
Kanaje Hindi, Samm Al Ferakh
USES COMMON TO VARIOUS SOCIETIES,
Abortifacient; Adaptogen; Antibiotic; Aphrodisiac; Astringent; Deobstruent; Diuretic;
Narcotic; Sedative; Tonic.
Ashwagandha is one of the most widespread tranquilisers used in India, where it holds a
position of importance similar to ginseng in China[238]. It acts mainly on the reproductive and
nervous systems, having a rejunative effect on the body, and is used to improve vitality and aid
recovery after chronic illness[238, 254]. The plant is little known in the West[192].
The whole plant, but especially the leaves and the root bark, are abortifacient, adaptogen,
antibiotic, aphrodisiac, deobstruent, diuretic, narcotic, strongly sedative and tonic[169, 192,
238, 240]. Internally, it is used to tone the uterus after a miscarriage and also in treating
post-partum difficulties[192]. It is also used to treat nervous exhaustion, debility, insomnia,
wasting diseases, failure to thrive in children, impotence, infertility, multiple sclerosis etc[238].
Externally it has been applied as a poultice to boils, swellings and other painful parts[192, 240].
The root is harvested in the autumn and dried for later use[238]. Some caution is advised in the
use of this plant since it is toxic[K].
The fruit is diuretic[240].
The seed is diuretic and hypnotic[240].
Other Uses
Repellent; Soap.
The fruit is rich in saponins and can be used as a soap substitute[169, 192].
The leaves are an insect repellent[169].
Plants For A Future: Database SEARCH ResultsMORE FINE DATA AND LINKS
AND
Coleus Forskohlii Herb Extract
This "power" herb has an active ingredient in it called forskolin. It has been used in ayruvedic medicine for many years. Forskolin's basic mechanism of action is that it increases the amount of cyclic AMP (adenosine monophosphate) in cells by activating an enzyme called adenylate cyclase. Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is one of the most important secondary messengers in the cell. It is considered to be one of the most important cell regulating compounds.
Under normal circumstances, cAMP forms by adenylate cyclase activation due to hormonal stimulation at the cell receptor site. However, forskolin seems to bypass this reaction and allows for an increase in intracellular cAMP to occur. Why is it important to increase cAMP levels? Well, there are several benefits of this to athletes including relaxation of the arteries and smooth muscles, lowering blood pressure, enhanced insulin secretion (which can help drive carbohydrates and protein into muscle cells for energy and recovery), increased thyroid hormone function (which can help enhance metabolic rate), and significantly increase lipolysis (fat burning). Forskolin also seems to benefit other cellular enzymes as well.
The breakdown of fat for fuel (lipolysis) is actually regulated by cAMP. Forskolin has been shown to not only enhance lipolysis but it may also inhibit fat storage from occurring. This is very good news for individuals trying to lose bodyfat and get lean. Another way that forskolin may allow for fat loss to occur is by stimulating thyroid hormone production and release. Thyroid hormone controls metabolism and can enhance metabolic rate, which may translate into more fat loss.
One of the overlooked benefits of forskolin includes its stimulation of digestive enzymes, which can allow individuals to digest and assimilate their food better. It has been shown to increase nutrient absorption in the small intestine.
Forskolin has been shown to be safe and effective and has a great amount of potential as a sports supplement. As with most dietary supplements, more human research is needed but the future looks bright for this compound.
PRODUCT COLEUS FORSKOHLII EXTRACT POWDER 20%
BOTANICAL NAME Coleus Forskohli
PLANT PART USED Roots
DESCRIPTION Dark Brown colour Powder with Odour Characteristic
BULK DENSITY (TAPPED) 0.68 g/ml
LOSS ON DRYING 2.00%
PARTICLE SIZE 100% through 40 Mesh
IDENTIFICATION Positive for Forskolin by HPLC
ASSAY
For Forskolin by HPLC (On 'AS IS' Basis) Above 20%
MICRO BIOLOGICAL
TOTAL PLATE COUNT 1000 CFU/GM
YEAST & MOULD 100 CFU/GM
SALMONELLA & E.COLI Negative
HEAVY METALS Nil
Coleus Forskohlii Herb Extract is drived from roots from
Coleus Forskohlii.
Coleus is used in India folk medicines and is a traditional
digestive remedy. Currently the plant is extensively cultivated
is Southern India. Forskohlii helps to lower blood pressure,
dilates the blood vessels. It is concerted to be a good Heart tonic.
Here we present a list of our main Herbal Extracts only. If you have interest in any other Herbal Extracts please contact us.
Name Source of Extract Standardised For Intended Use
Aloe Vera Herb 3% Aloein Radio-protective, Moisturizer, Sun screen
Allium Sativum (Garlic) Fruit 1% Allicin Promotes skin healing
Azadirachta Indica (Neem Seed) Seeds of Neem growing wild throughout India 3% Bitters Antifungal, Bitter tonic, Blood Purifier
Adhatoda Vasica Leaf Leaves of plant found throughout norther plain & Himalayas 1% Alkaloids Expectorant antispasmodic
Andrographis Panniculata Whole Herb found throughout India, sometimes cultivated 10%, 20% & 50% Androgrphloid by HPLC Antipyretic alternative hepato protective
Asparagus racemosus (Satawari) Roots of plant found throughout tropical & sub tropical India Saponin NLT 30% w/w Aphrodisiac
Atropa Belladonna Root Plant found in Kashmir, sometimes cultivated 1.5% Alkaloid
Bacopa Monnieri Herb The small plant cultivated all over India, found in abundance in wild 10%, 20% & 50% Bacosides by HPLC Improving brain function & reducing stress
Boswellia Serrata The gum of the Boswellia serrata tree growing wild in the deserts of India 60%, 70% & 90% Boswellic acids by non aqueous titration Relieving joint pain. Anti-inflammatory
Centella Asiatica Herb (Gotu Kola) The tiny plant of Centella asiatica growing in Southern India 10%, 20% & 50% Triterpenoid Improving brain function
Cassia Angustifolia Leaves Leaves of cassia Angustifolia being cultivated in South of India 10%, 20% & 45% & 60% Sennosides A+B Laxative
Commiphora Mukul The gum of the Commiphora mukul tree growing wild in the deserts of North Western India 3% & 15& Guggul Sterones by HPLC Cholestrol lowering and Energy giving
Emblica Officinalis Fruit of tree growing wild in Northern & Central India 25% Tannins Tonic, Astringent carminative, cooling
Garcinia Cambogia Fruit The dried fruit collected from the forests of Southern India & South-East Asia Calcium Salts with 50, 60 or 65%Hydroxycitric acid (HCA) Potassium salts(water soluble) upto 50% HCA.
Combined Ca/K salts(water soluble) with 60% HCA
Magnesium salt (water soluble) Upto 75% HCA. All tests by HPLC Weight management and anti-obesity
Green Tea Vastly Cultivated 50% & 60% Polyphenols
Glycyrrhiza Glabra (Mulethi) Roots of plant found in desert parts of India. Roots generally imported for extraction NLT 20% Glycyrrhizinic acid Expectorant
Guava Leaf Plant cultivated throughout India for fruit 15% Tannins
Gymnema Sylvestre The leaves of the climbing plant found in the forests of India 25%, 50% & 75% Glymnemic acids by Gravimetry Management of Blood Sugar levels and promoting healthy pancreas
Hibiscus Sabdariffa Flower/Leaves of creper extensively cultivated, found in wild also throughout India 30% HCA by HPLC Shampoo's, Hair Care
Hypericum Perforatum
(St. John's Wort Extract) The top portion of the bush growing wild in Eastern Europe and South America 0.3% Hypericin by HPLC Anti-depressant
Mango Leaf Extract The leaves of Mangifera indica growing all over Southern India 5%, 10% & 80% Mangiferin by HPLC Anti-virat
Mappia Foetida
Momordica Charantia Fruit Fruit of creper cultivated throughout india 6% Bitters Good for Diobetic
Morinda Citrifolia Fruit(Noni) Fruit of tree cultivated throughout India 15% Morindin Immuno-Modulator
Mucuna Pruriens Seeds of plant found wild in cntral India 20% L-Dopa Tonic in parkinson disease
Nigella Sativa Seeds 3% Bitters & 15% Saponin
Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) Leaves of Holy Basil cultivated monthly in North India Tannins NLT 4% w/w For Cough & Cold
Phyllanthus Niruri 2% Bitters Liver Tonic
Piper Nigrum The dried fruits of Piper Nigrun 95% Piperine by HPLC Known to display CNS depressant & analgesic activity, anti-pyretic effects. Is prescribed for dyspepsia, flatulence and diarrhoea
Salacia Reticulata 8% Glycosides
Spirulina Powder 60% Protein Food Supplement, Rich in proteins
Sida Cordifolia 6% Alkaloid
Strychnos 6% Alkaloid Bitter Tonic
Tamarindus Indica Fruit Fruit of tree found wild throughout India Brix 65 Antioxidant, Citric
Terminalia Arjuna 1% Arjunic Acid
Terminalia belerica Extract Tannins NLT -15% w/w Functions
Terminalia chebula Extract
Tribulus Terrestris Fruit The dried aerial parts of the ground creeper, growing wild all over India 20%, 40% & 60% Steroidal Saponins by Gravimetry Body building and Aphrodisiac
Triphla 25% Tannins Normalize Gl tract
Turmeric Root Roots & Plant cultivated & used as spice 95% Curcumin Antibiotic, Natural yellow colour
Valerian Wallichi Root The roots & rootlets of the plant growing wild in Northern India 0.8% Valerenic acids by HPLC Sleep inducing and anti-spasmolytic
Withania Somnifera Root The root of the plant Withania Somnifera also called Indian Ginseng cultivated throughout India 2% Alkaloids and 3% Withanolides both by Gravimetry Promoting vigor & vitality and increasing endurance
Zingiber Officinale Tuber (Ginger) The dried rhizomes of Zingiber Officinale cultivated in the warmer regions of South India 5% Gingerols by HPLC Digestive and for relieving motion sickness, nausea and common cold
YOU CAN ALWAYS FIND MORE TOP OF THE LINE INFORMATION BY PERSONALY
SEARCHING THE SCIENCE SEARCH ENGINES FOUND ON THE VARIETY OF SITES
LISTED HERE AND TO ADD YOUR DATA TO YOUR HOMEPAGE,OR EMAIL DRAFTS
FOR BUILDING INTO AN UNFORGETABLE BODY OF KNOWLEDGE AND WISDOM.
Penguinbooks.comPenguin BOOKS
okdirecthttp://www.okdirect.com/Biz
dreamsDREAMLORE
Weeds Australia: National WeedsStrategyAUZI PLANTZ&WEEDZ+LINKS
AN ADVANCED LIST OF WORLDWIDE QUALITY MUSEUMSMUSEUM LIST
? SEEDS 365/YEAR
good seeds-OK!
NORTHAMERICA.BACKPACKERS.COM-travel by car contacts-THE REST OF THE WORKD TOO!Travel CONTACTS
sTIL MORE HEALTH DATA ONWithania somnifera
(Ashwagandha)
Therapeutic Actions:
Anemia with emaciation
Anti-inflammatory
Antitumor activity, in animal studies
Ayurvedic superior rejuvenative herb for the muscles, bone marrow and semen
Catalyzes the anabolic processes of the body
Free-radical scavenging activity
Hypotensive
Immunomodulating
Increases phagocytosis and intracellular killing of peritoneal macrophages
Inhibits aging
Nervous exhaustion
Nurtures and clarifies the mind promoting dreamless sleep
Promotes the healing of tissue
Regenerates the hormonal system
Sedative
Stimulates the immune system
Stress-induced health conditions
Clinical Indications:
Aging prevention
Alzheimer's
Chronic fatigue syndrome
Hypertension
Impotence due to aging or stress
Insomnia
Memory loss
Multiple sclerosis
Anemia
Aspergillus infection
Chronic inflammation
Cognitive function deficits
Depressed white blood cell count due to cytotoxic drugs
Glandular swelling
Infertility
Problems of old age
Contraindications:
Pregnancy
Drug/Nutrient Interaction:
No interactions have been reported
Chemical Constituents:
Ashwagandholine, an alkaloid
Withaferin A, has significant antitumor and radiosensitizing effects in experimental tumors
of animals in vivo, without any noticeable systemic toxicity
Withanolides, steroidal compounds whose action and appearance resemble the active
constituents of Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng) known as ginsenosides
Plants For A Future: Database SEARCH ResultsMORE FINE DATA AND LINKS
Ashwagandha
and-File name: ASHWAGANDA.doc File type: application/msword
Save to my Yahoo! Briefcase - Download File - Need Help?
http://www.wrc.net/phyto/Ashvagandha.html
Education
Amalaki, Ashvagandha, Bala, Bhringaraja, Chandana, Gokshura, Haritaki, Mandukaparni, Vacha, Vibhitaka
Ashvagandha, 'smelling like a horse'
Botanical Name: Withania somnifera, Solanaceae
Common Name: Asgandh (H), Amukkira (T), Winter Cherry (E)
Part Used: root, leaves, fruit
Dravyguna: root.
�Rasa: tikta, kashaya
�Vipaka: katu
�Virya: ushna
�Karma: Vatapittahara, Kaphakopa, balyam, vajikarana, tonic, adaptogen, relaxing nervine, post-partum tonic, immunomodulant, astringent, galactagogue, diuretic, thermogenic (Dash 1991, 59; Dash and Junius 1983, 155; Frawley and Lad 1986, 160; Varier 1996, 409)
Indications:
�Root: asthma, bronchitis, edema, leucoderma, anorexia, consumption, asthenia, anemia, exhaustion, aging, insomnia, ADD/ADHD, neurasthenia, infertility, impotence, repeated miscarriage, paralysis, memory loss, multiple sclerosis, immune-dysfunction, carcinoma, rheumatism, arthritis, lumbago (Dash 1991 59; Dash and Junius 1987, 155; Kirtikar and Basu 1993, 1775-76; Frawley and Lad 1986, 160; Nadkarni 1976, 1293-94; Varier 1996, 409)
�Leaves: used internally for fever and hemorrhoids; externally for wounds, hemorrhoids, tumors, tuberculous glands, anthrax pustules, syphylitic sores, erysipelas, and in ophthalmitis (Kirtikar and Basu 1993 1775-76; Varier 1996, 409)
�Fruit: used externally in ringworm (Kirtikar and Basu 1993 1775-76)
Contraindications: Caution should be used with clients on anticonvulsants, barbituates and benzodiazepines. Ashvagandha is traditionally avoided in lymphatic congestion, during colds and flu, or symptoms of ama (Frawley and Lad 1986, 160).
Toxicity: None reported (Aphale et al 1998).
Dosage: root
�Churna: 3 5 g b.i.d. - t.i.d.
�Kashaya: 100 mL t.i.d.
�Tincture: fresh root, 95%, 1:2; dried root, 50%, 1:4; 1 10 mL t.i.d.
Medical research:
�Adaptogen: The traditional use of Ashvagandha as a rasayana has been validated by scientific investigation. Wistar rats treated with an extract of Withania somnifera showed better stress tolerance in cold water swimming tests (Archana and Namasivayam 1999).
�Antiinflammatory: A methanolic extract of the aerial parts of Withania somnifera had antiinflammatory activities comparable to that of hydrocortisone sodium succinate (al-Hindawi et al 1992). An 80% ethanolic extract of Withania somnifera displayed significant antiinflammatory activity on carrageenan-induced paw edema (al-Hindawi 1989).
�Antioxidant: An aqueous suspension of root extract of Ashvagandha prevented the rise of experimentally induced lipid peroxidation in rabbits and mice (Dhuley 1998a). An extract of Withania somnifera, consisting of equimolar concentrations of sitoindosides VII-X and withaferin A, induced an increase in the levels of superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase in rat brain, consistent with other research that reports an antioxidant, immunomodulant and antiinflammatory activity (Bhattacharya et al 1997).
�Cancer: The administration of Ashvagandha rasayana (an Ayurvedic polyherbal formulation containing Ashvagandha) significantly reduced the lung tumor nodule formation by 55.6% in experimental animals (Menon et al. 1997). An alcoholic extract of the dried roots as well as withaferin A isolated from the extract showed significant antitumor and radiosensitizing effects in experimental tumors in Chinese hamster cells, without any noticeable systemic toxicity (Devi 1996). The steroidal lactone withaferin A displayed significant antitumor and radiosensitizing effects, inhibiting tumor growth and increasing survival in Swiss mice inoculated with Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (Devi et al 1995; Sharad et al 1996). The administration of an extract of Withania somnifera was found to significantly reduce leucopenia induced by cyclophosphamide treated experimental animals, indicating its usefulness in cancer therapy (Davis and Kuttan 1998). The administration of methanolic extract of Ashvagandha was found to significantly increase the WBC count in normal Balb/c mice and reduce leucopenia induced by a sublethal dose of gamma radiation. Withania increased bone marrow cellularity and normalised the ratio of normochromatic erythrocytes and polychromatic erythrocytes. This observed activity was thought to be due to stem cell proliferation (Kuttan 1996).
�Central Nervous system: Isolated constituents of Withania somnifera (sitoindosides VII-X and withaferin-A) increased cortical muscarinic acetylcholine receptor capacity, partly explaining the cognition-enhancing and memory-improving effects traditionally attributed to Ashvagandha (Schliebs et al 1997). A methanolic extract of Withania somnifera inhibited the specific binding of [3H]GABA and [35S]TBPS, and enhanced the binding of [3H]flunitrazepam to their putative receptor sites, suggesting a GABA-mimetic activity (Mehta et al 1991). A commercial root extract of Withania somnifera used repeatedly over 9 days attenuated the development of tolerance to the analgesic effect of morphine and suppressed morphine-withdrawal jumps (Kulkarni and Ninan 1997).
�Immunity: Myelosuppressed mice treated with an extract of Ashvagandha displayed a significant increase in hemoglobin concentration, red blood cell count, white blood cell count, platelet count and body weight as compared to controls, as well as increased hemolytic antibody responses towards human erythrocytes (Ziauddin et al 1996). Researchers at the Amala Cancer Research Centre in Kerala, India, found that the administration of an extract from the powdered root of Withania somnifera enhanced the levels of interferon gamma, interleukin-2 and granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor in normal and cyclophosphamide-treated mice, suggesting an immunopotentiating and myeloprotective effect (Davis and Kuttan 1999). Mice infected intravenously with Aspergillus fumigatus and treated for 7 consecutive days with an oral preparation of an extract of Withania somnifera at a dose of 100mg/kg displayed increased phagocytic activity and prolonged survival time (Dhuley 1998). The antifungal activity of Withania has been confirmed elsewhere, attributed to the withanolides (Choudhary et al 1995).
�Musculo-skeletal: A herbomineral formulation containing roots of Withania somnifera, the stem of Boswellia serrata, rhizomes of Curcuma longa and a zinc complex (Articulin-F), was evaluated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled, cross-over study in clients with osteoarthritis. The results produced a significant drop in severity of pain and disability, although radiological assessment did not show any significant changes. Sideeffects were minimal and did not necessitate the withdrawal of treatment. (Kulkarni et al 1991)
Comments: Ashvagandha is the Indian equivalent to Ginseng (Panax ginseng)., but unlike Ginseng, Ashvagandha has a sedative rather than stimulant action on the central nervous system, making it a superior medicine for exhaustion with nervous irritability. A rejuvenating preparation can be made by mixing Ashvagandha with 10-15% Pippali, taken with one half part ghrita and 1 part honey on an empty stomach, morning and evening. Ashvagandha is a useful nervine, taken before bed to relax and nourish the body in deficiency diseases, but is only seen to be efficacious when taken on a sustained basis- it is not a sufficient sedative to treat acute insomnia. For poor memory, lack of concentration and in the treatment of ADD/ADHD Ashvagandha may be used in equal proportions with Brahmi and Ling zhi (Ganoderma lucidum). Ashvagandha is widely used in any debility, emaciation or consumptive condition, in both adults and children (Kirtikar and Basu 1993, 1775; Nadkarni 1976, 1294).
As its name �smelling like a horse?suggests, Ashvagandha is an important vajikarana rasayana, indicating the sexual potency of a stallion, and is used in the treatment of infertility, impotence and �seminal depletion?(Nadkarni 1976, 1293). When mixed with equal parts Shatavari (Asparagus racemosa), it is an appropriate treatment for female infertility and frigidity and is useful in threatened miscarriage.
For poor eyesight Ashvagandha powder is mixed with equal proportions of Licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra root) powder and the fresh juice of Amalaki (Emblica officinalis fruit) (Nadkarni, 1294). An infusion of the leaves may be used in in the treatment of ophthalmia (Kirtikar and Basu 1993, 1776).
In the form of Narayana taila, Ashvagandha may be taken internally, 3 10 gtt. b.i.d. for consumption and emaciation in children, and as an enema for anal fistula (Nadkarni 1976, 1294). Narayana taila may also be taken as nasya (2-3 gtt.) in cases of hearing loss and in abhyanga in cases of paralysis, tetanus, rheumatism and lumbago (Nadkarni 1976, 1294).
Nadkarni mentions that Ashvagandha is used in the treatment of antiinflammatory joint disease (1976, 1293), but as Lad and Frawley suggest, Ashvagandha can facilitate the production of ama (1986, 160), and thus an eliminative regimen is best utilized prior to using this botanical. Likewise, Ashvagandha is an appropriate remedy in the treatment of asthma and bronchitis (Kirtikar and Basu 1993, 1775-6), but should be used concurrently with dravyas that have a dipana-pacana property to avoid the production of ama.
Varrier mentions that a paste made of the roots and bruised leaves may be applied to carbuncles, ulcers and painful swellings (1996, 409).
References:
al-Hindawi, M.K., I.H. Al-Deen, M.H. Nabi, and M.H. Ismail. 1989. Anti-inflammatory activity of some Iraqi plants using intact rats. J Ethnopharmacol. Sep; 26(2):163-8
Aphale A.A., A.D. Chhibba, N.R. Kumbhakarna, M. Mateenuddin and S.H. Dahat. 1998. Subacute toxicity study of the combination of ginseng (Panax ginseng) and ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) in rats: a safety assessment. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol Apr; 42(2):299-302
Archana, R. and A. Namasivayam. 1999. Antistressor effect of Withania somnifera. J Ethnopharmacol. Jan; 64(1):91-3
Bhattacharya, S.K., K.S. Satyan and S. Ghosal. 1997. Antioxidant activity of glycowithanolides from Withania somnifera. Indian J Exp Biol. Mar; 35(3):236-9
Choudhary, M.I., Dur-e-Shahwar, Z. Parveen, A. Jabbar , I. Ali, Atta-ur-Rahman. 1995. Antifungal steroidal lactones from Withania coagulance. Phytochemistry Nov; 40(4):1243-6
Dash, Bhagwan. 1991. Materia Medica of Ayurveda. New Delhi: B. Jain Publishers.
----------- and Manfred Junius. 1983. A Handbook of Ayurveda. New Delhi: Concept Publishing.
Davis, L. and G. Kuttan. 1999. Effect of Withania somnifera on cytokine production in normal and cyclophosphamide treated mice. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol Nov; 21(4):695-703
Davis L. and G. Kuttan. 1998. Suppressive effect of cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity by Withania somnifera extract in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. Oct; 62(3):209-14
Devi, P.U. 1996. Withania somnifera Dunal (Ashwagandha): potential plant source of a promising drug for cancer chemotherapy and radiosensitization. Indian J Exp Biol. Oct; 34(10):927-32
Devi, P.U., A.C. Sharada, and F.E. Solomon. 1995. In vivo growth inhibitory and radiosensitizing effects of withaferin A on mouse Ehrlich ascites carcinoma. Cancer Lett. Aug 16; 95(1-2):189-93
Dhuley, J.N. 1998a. Effect of Ashwagandha on lipid peroxidation in stress-induced animals. J Ethnopharmacol. Mar; 60(2):173-8
Dhuley, J.N. 1998b. Therapeutic efficacy of Ashwagandha against experimental aspergillosis in mice. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. Feb; 20(1):191-8
Frawley, David and Vasant Lad. 1986. The Yoga Of Herbs: An Ayurvedic Guide to Herbal Medicine. Santa Fe: Lotus Press.
Kirtikar KR and BD Basu. 1993. Indian Medicinal Plants. 2nd ed. Vol. 1-4. 1935. Reprint. Delhi: Periodical Experts.
Kulkarni, S.K. and I. Ninan. 1997. Inhibition of morphine tolerance and dependence by Withania somnifera in mice. J Ethnopharmacol. Aug; 57(3):213-7
Kulkarni, R.R., P.S. Patki, V.P. Jog, S.G. Gandage and B. Patwardhan. 1991. Treatment of osteoarthritis with a herbomineral formulation: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. J Ethnopharmacol. May-Jun; 33(1-2):91-5
Kuttan, G. 1996. Use of Withania somnifera Dunal as an adjuvant during radiation therapy. Indian J Exp Biol. Sep; 34(9):854-6
Mehta, A.K., P. Binkley, S.S. Gandhi, and M.K. Ticku. 1991. Pharmacological effects of Withania somnifera root extract on GABAA receptor complex. Indian J Med Res. Aug; 94:312-5
Menon L.G., R. Kuttan, and G. Kuttan. 1997. Effect of rasayanas in the inhibition of lung metastasis induced by B16F-10 melanoma cells. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. Dec; 16(4):365-8
Nadkarni, Dr. K.M. 1976. The Indian Materia Medica, with Ayurvedic, Unani and Home Remedies. Revised and enlarged by A.K. Nadkarni. 1954. Reprint. Bombay: Bombay Popular Prakashan PVP.
Schliebs, R., A. Liebmann , S.K. Bhattacharya, A. Kumar, S. Ghosal, and V. Bigl. 1997. Systemic administration of defined extracts from Withania somnifera (Indian Ginseng) and Shilajit differentially affects cholinergic but not glutamatergic and GABAergic markers in rat brain. Neurochem Int. Feb; 30(2):181-90
Sharad, A.C., F.E. Solomon, P.U. Devi, N. Udupa, and K.K. Srinivasan. 1996. Antitumor and radiosensitizing effects of withaferin A on mouse Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in vivo. Acta Oncol. 35(1):95-100
Varrier, P.S. 1996. Indian Medicinal Plants: A Compendium of 500 species. Edited by PK Warrier, VPK Nambiar and C Ramankutty. vol 5. Hyderabad: Orient Longman.
Ziauddin, M., N. Phansalkar, P. Patki , S. Diwanay, B. Patwardhan. 1996. Studies on the immunomodulatory effects of Ashwagandha. J Ethnopharmacol. Feb; 50(2):69-76
-http://www.indo-world.com-
FREE WORLD BOTANICAL RESOURCES
AUTOTAXI.COM-travel by car contactsTravel CONTACTS
The Genus Datura: From Research Subject
to Powerful Hallucinogen
By Kirsten Bonde
Datura is one of the most interesting plants with hallucinogenic properties. Despite having a reputation as one of the 'darker' hallucinogens, it has been widely used by societies historically in both the Old World and the New, and continues to be today. For those interested in ethnobotanical uses of this plant world-wide, Datura is a fascinating topic. While being limited in its uses economically, the alkaloids contained in the plant have been in demand in the past and its application as a subject for botanical research is vast. Heiser has stated that "Datura is a genus of contrasts - from smelly weeds to lovely ornamentals." This paper will attempt to provide an overview of this varied genus, with specific attention being given to Datura stramonium, most common in North America.
Datura belongs to the family Solanaceae, the nightshades, which Includes some 2,400 species in total (Siegel 1989:36). Other plants with narcotic properties in this family are mandrake (Mandrogora), belladonna (Atropa), henbane (Hyoscyamus), and tobacco (Nicotiana). Appropriately called the "paradoxical plants" by Heiser, this family also includes such common food plants as the tomato, potato, and eggplant (Safford 1922:539). There seems to be some disagreement as to how many sections and species belong to the genus Datura. Conklin (1976:3-4) states that herbaceous Datura is now divided into five sections, while the older citation by Avery (1959:18) claims only four. in any case, this genus contains about ten different herbaceous species, the most important ones being D. stramonium, D. inoxia, D. metel, and D. ceratocaula (Schultes 1979:41-42).
Common names for Datura are numerous, some of the most common ones being raving nightshade, thorn apple, stinkweed, Devil's apple, Jimson weed, and angel's trumpet (Heiser 1969:140 and Avery 1959:19). Datura can be found throughout Asia, Europe, and the Americas as either native or adventive plants, and some have also been found in Africa and Australia (Conklin 1976:5). The epicenter of diversity of this plant is in the New World, specifically in Andean South America and in the southwestern United States/Mexico region (Lewis 1977:423-4). This data correlates with the generally agreed upon origin of Datura, although this topic was debated for some time. Researchers now believe the plant originated and evolved in Mexico and the American Southwest, followed by adaptive radiation into new desert environments (Conklin 1976:5).
Today, Datura (mainly the species stramonium) can be found all over North America as a roadside weed, but never in mountainous or forested habitats (Hutchens 1991:166). A possible explanation for its success as a weed has been offered by Heiser, who argues that the long duration of the seeds is responsible. Tests have shown that Datura seeds stored for 39 years still had a germination rate of 90% (Heiser 1969:140). The plant seems to prefer xeric environments and has an annual or short-lived perennial life cycle (Conklin 1976:5). Since Datura is not a widely grown crop plant, estimations on yield were difficult to locate. The only mention on the topic was in reference to experiments carried out to determine the effect of manure and other nitrogenous fertilizers on the plant. "In 1911 yields from Datura stramonium were reported as increasing from 23 kg. per 100 square meters, on unmanured land to 33 kg. per 100 square meters on land which had been dunged with farmyard manure" (James 1947:230-231).
The earliest mention of a plant of this genus was by the Arab Avicenna in the 11 th century in an account of Arabian medicinal plants, later translated by Dioscorides. The "nut" of the plant was recognized by early botanists as a fruit of a solanaceous plant, later called Datura metel (Avery 1959:3). The generic name of Datura was first used by Linnaeus in his 1737 publication Hortus Cliffortianus. Objecting to "barbaric" nomenclature, he latinized Dhatura or Dutra into the modem name of Datura (Avery 1959:17). The English herbalist Gerard also made mention of Datura in reference to the plant Greek writer Theocrastus called Hippomanes, thought to drive horses mad. He also believed Datura was responsible for putting the priests of Apollo in ancient Greece into their prophetic state (Schultes 1979:109).
Later historical accounts of Datura include Christoval Acosta's Tractado de las Drogas y Medicinas de las Indias Orientales (1578). He describes the use of Datura in the East Indies as an aphrodisiac and also states that the seeds were highly prized treasures by Hindu enamorades, who ground them into a powder to be added to wine or some other medium. Herbalist Li Shi-Chen, in a work on Chinese medicines entitled Peu ts'ao Kang mu (15 90), explained the origin of the Chinese name for Datura. Man t'o lo h ua is said to be taken from the famous Buddhist sutra "Fa hua ching," which states that when Buddha preaches a sermon from heaven, dew forms on the petals of Datura from raindrops. According to the Taoist tradition though, the name refers to a specific star whose envoy is supposed to carry a Datura flower in one hand (Safford 1922:540). These early accounts of the plant offer valuable insight into its widespread use and rich history. But while Datura continued to.be investigated, the most thorough study was conducted in the early 20th century by Albert F. Blakeslee, who spent most of his career using the plant to conduct groundbreaking research Into plant genetics.
Perhaps the most Important contribution of Datura, at least in sclentIfIc terms, is its use as a research subject to better understand fundamental biological principles (Heiser 1069:141). Datura plants contain 12 pairs of chromosomes normally, but trisomic (2n+1) individuals can be grown which have an extra chromosome in one of their twelve sets. This was discovered by Blakeslee, who went on to identify twelve primary mutants, each with one of the normal chromosomes as an extra, and for many of these, two secondary mutants where the extra chromosome was a reduplicated half of the one of the normal ones (Avery 1959:viii). The Blakeslee himself understood the Implications of his work, as evident when he wrote an article for Smithsonian in 1930 and stated, "...it is our belief that in the future extra chromosomes will be consciously utilized as a source of desirable variations in plants of economic Importance" (449). How right he was!
Another great accomplishment was the discovery of a haploid in Datura by Blakeslee. "This was the f1rst haploid to be found in vascular plants and created something of a sensation. Haploid plants, one thought, should be gamophytes, but here was a little plant, rather weak and nearly sterile, that was clearly a sporophyte, but that had only one set of chromosomes in its cells" (Avery 1959.-Vili). With this research, much interest in polyploidy was aroused and investigations continued.
While a total of six stages in the polyploidy series of Datura have now been Identified (1n, 2n, 3n, 4n, 6n, and 8n), the Initial work by Blakeslee was of vast importance. With the finding of polyploids containing four sets of chromosomes Instead of two "was born the concept of genic balance; that is, an organism that has complete extra sets of all of its genes is not very different from a normal organism of its type, whereas an organism that has a single extra chromosome, giving it an extra 'dose' of the genes carried on this chromosome and thus changing the ratio of these genes to those bome on the other chromosomes, has a profoundly changed appearance" (Heiser 1969:142). The research conducted by Blakeslee during his lifetime were of immeasurable value to such diverse aspects of botany as genetics, cytology, physiology, morphology, and anatomy. in the process of this, the Datura plant itself has become better understood. The numerous variations genetically in the plant has amazed many researchers and it is believed that "Datura now probably displays a larger number of distinguishable types due to gene mutations than any other species of plants except corn" (Avery 1959:110).
Being a known hallucinogen, the chemistry and alkaloid composition of Datura also becomes important if one is to understand the plant itself as well as its history. The main alkaloids of medicinal value in Datura are members of the tropane class, namely atropine, hyoscyamine, and hyoscine (Avery 1959:48). All are commonly grouped under the headings of stramonine or daturine (Heiser 1969:141), and are present in varying concentrations in all parts of the plant. The variance is due to the stage of development of the plant and the environmental conditions it is grown in. There is a decreases in the concentration during the day and an increase at night, as well as less following a rainy period than after clear weather (Lewis 1977:419). The effect of environmental factors has been shown to cause as much variation as that found between specific races (Avery 1959:48).
The medicinal value of the alkaloids themselves is significant, but Datura is not considered the best source for them. Atropine is present in small amounts in Datura and can be extracted from hyoscyarnine in a commercial process. The alkaloid has a paralyzing action that helps relieve bronchial spasms in the treatment of asthma. Old-fashioned methods of treating this respiratory problem included use of an inhaler containing stramonine and belladonna (also a primary source of atropine). When the supply of belladonna was cut off during World War II, the United States began intentional cultivation of D. stramonium as a domestic source of atropine. This was abandoned later because imported belladonna was cheaper than domestic Datura resources (Heiser 1969:141).
The daturine alkaloids are also known to cause dilation of the pupil of the eye (mydriasis) and paralysis of the muscles of accommodation (cycloplegia). They effect the nervous system too, with atropine acting as a stimulant and hyoscine as a depressant. Atropine is used to counteract the depression associated with morphine and hyoscine acts as an antidote to highly toxic phosphate insecticides and so called "nerve gases." Other applications of hyoscine Include prevention of motion sickness, as an analgesic along with morphine in obstetrics to produce "twilight sleep," and as a truth drug (Avery 1959:51).
While people may not have been aware of the chemical constituency of Datura, the plant was used medicinally all over the world in historical times. in the Old World, the Chinese used Datura to treat colds and nervous conditions (Siegel 1989:21). in India, the powdered seeds were mixed with butter and taken internally for impotence as well as being applied to genitalia to obtain sexual vigor (Lewis 1977:330). Referred to as the tuft of Shiva, the god of destruction, Datura was also used in the form of a liquid extract by thugs - worshipers of Kali, the goddess of fertility and death - to stupefy sacrificial victims. The plant was also given to young girls in India to bring them Into prostitution as well as on their clients (Siegel 1989:21). The leaves were smoked as well in that country to relieve asthma (Lewis 1977:395).
European usage of Datura can be traced back to pagan rituals. The Church suppressed knowledge of the plant during the medieval witch-burning period and associated Datura and other plants such as deadly nightshade and monkshood with the Devil. "...flying ointments and magical salves were compounded out of Datura roots and seeds, parts of the plant rich in delirium- and delusion-producing tropane alkaloids. When this material was applied to the witch's body, it produced states of extraordinary derangement and delusion" (McKenna 1992:90). The use of broomsticks by witches can be explained by these practices, serving to apply the salves to sensitive vaginal membranes (Lewis 1977:420).
Experiments on these controversial religious practices were carried out by Andres Laguna, a physician to Pope Julius III, and showed how the salves containing Datura took the women on "Journeys" by producing dreams only, contrary to widely-held folk beliefs of the period. Giovanni Battista Porta, a colleague of Galileo and who also took part in Laguna's experiment, described how men drank potions of Datura to create the illusion of being a bird or beast. The men wore wolfs skin and ran about on all fours following ingestion of the hallucinogen, providing the basis of our modem werewolf stories (Siegel 1989:22).
While Datura was definitely used in the Old World, no where did it have as much application as in the New World. The seeds were used by ancient Peruvians in trepanning operations as an anesthetic and archeological evidence Indicates that these complex surgical procedures had a higher survival rate than one would expect (Heiser 1969:136). The use of enema syringes in Peru dates back to 600800 AD and could have contained Datura among other things, considering the vast herbal knowledge of the healers of this region (McKenna 1992:197-8). Wild and cultivated species of Datura were also used in other parts of western South America by indigenous peoples to Induce partial intoxication, to control unruly children, and the plant was given in large doses along with tobacco to women and slaves to deaden their senses before being buried alive with their dead husbands or masters. Extracts made from the bark, leaves, and seeds were also used in shamanistic rites and practices of this region (Avery 1959:4).
The Aztecs also made use of Datura, specifically D. meteloides, which they called ololluhqui "the magic plant," for all kinds of diseases including paralysis and as an ointment for cuts or wounds (Safford 1922:550). The plant's narcotic effects were employed by Aztecan shamans and priests to communicate with spirits, causing visions and stimulating people to dance, laugh, weep, sleep, or tell oracular prophecies. The seeds were considered sacred and kept on altars or in secret boxes and sacrificial offerings made to them by the Aztecs (Avery 1959:4).
Zuni Indians and other cultures in the American Southwest and Mexican region used Datura as well and referred to it as toloache Used to relieve pain during the setting of bones among other things, D. meteloides was the most universally used drug in the region. it was also taken by young boys in male initiation rituals and used in ceremonies following the death of a member of the tribe (Avery 1959:4). Attitudes toward the plant varied among tribes from no special reverence to attribution of supernatural powers. But while knowledge of this plant was widespread among Native Americans, early colonialists were not as aware of Its properties. An interesting example of this is what happened to British soldiers in 1676 sent to Jamestown, Virginia to quell Bacon's Rebellion. After including Datura stramonium in a salad, the soldiers were reported to have gone mad for eleven or so days before the effects finally wore off. This incident is probably the source for Datura's common name jimsonweed, a shortened version of James Town weed (Avery 1959:5).
From an anthropological perspective, the use of Datura stramonium by Algonquin Indians of Virginia in their huskanawing ceremony provides an excellent example, of the role of hallucinogens during the liminal period in rites of passage. The concept of liminality was first discussed by Arnold Van Gennep in his Rites o Passaga (1908) and later elaborated on by Victor Turner. The liminal period is one part of rites of passage during which initiates are removed from social space and involved in reflection and learning about their particular society. Victor Turner has pointed to the Importance of studying this phenomenon in order to understand processes of social change generationally within a culture. The use of Datura in this rite provides such insight.
Beverly in his History of Virginia (1705) described the rite of huskanawing. The rite was practiced by Algonquins every fourteen or sixteen years and involved taking the "choicest and briskest" young men of the society into the woods and ritually administering an intoxicating medicine (wysoccan), containing Datura, to them. The rite was necessary if the young men hoped to become great men or officers within their society. Kept in cages or enclosures for several months, the local medicine men carefully fed the boys only wysoccan, causing them to become "stark, raving mad" for a period of eighteen or twenty days so as to "perfectly lose the remembrance of all former things, even of their parents, their treasure, and their language." When sufficient dosages had been administered, the amount was reduced gradually and the young men slowly returned to their senses. But before the potion completely wore off, the boys were brought back, into their village and carefully observed to see if any memories of their former life as boys were discovered. If one did show signs of remembering, the entire ritual had to be undergone again, this time greatly endangering the life of the initiate (Safford 1922:558-9).
While this may serve as a severe example of liminality, the purpose of the rite being one of transition follows Van Gennep's and Turner's theory perfectly. As Beverly describes, the boys are forced to relearn all aspects of their culture, "...thus they unlive their former lives, and commence men by forgetting that they ever have been boys" (Safford 1922:558-9). In order to become fully adult, socialized members of Algonquin society, the boys must leave their former role of boyhood and its accompanying memories behind. While possible reasons for the severity of the ritual are beyond the scope of this paper, the account by Beverly struck me as Important enough to Include and is worth further research in the future.
While the above descriptions make it appear like Datura is a fairly widely used, relatively harmless hallucinogenic plant, this is not at all the case. There is adequate reason for Datura's dark -reputation and probably one of the more famous examples has to do with Abraham Lincoln's mother, Nancy Hanks. She apparently drank milk from a local cow that had grazed on the plant and consequently developed "milk sickness," a slow but fatal disease. Her death effected Lincoln tremendously and caused the President to remain abstinent from alcohol for the remainder of his life (Siegel 1989:259). The possibility of poisoning when taking Datura is fairly high and occurs often with symptoms similar to belladonna. As discussed earlier, chemical composition of the plant varies with environmental conditions the plant is grown In, thereby making it difficult to determine a safe dosage. Cases of children eating parts of the plant have often been reported, attracted by the colorful flowers and seedpods. Livestock poisoning seems to be rarer, possible due to Datura's odor and taste (Lewis 1977:54).
With its long history of human usage, one may ask how people learned to use Datura safely. One possible answer lies in the foraging habits of animals. Tribal peoples, living in a much closer relationship with nature, probably observed the effects Datura had on different species of animals and copied their eating strategies when consuming the hallucinogen themselves. Modern scientists have watched hawk moths feed on the flowers at night and become disoriented. Nonetheless, the moths continue to attempt to return to the plant for further feeding. Hummingbirds also favor Datura and after ingesting the narcotic perch, fluff their feathers, and then freeze stiff like corpses for several hours (Siegel 1989:25). Other research has also demonstrated that animals chose to eat hallucinogenic plants on an infrequent basis only, seeming to realize that tolerances can easily develop with regular usage.
Interestingly, some animals are unaffected by Datura Beetles have developed biochemical defenses against the plants potent chemicals and ants appear to have done the same, often being observed carrying away the seeds. Bees are unaffected as well and various species of birds are known to eat the seeds, thereby acting as a dispersal mechanism for the plant (Siegel 1989:24). Using animals as a model to learn from, ancient hunters and gatherers probably began using Datura and many incorporated it into shamanistic rituals, a more controlled environment for ingestion of such a powerful and dangerous hallucinogen.
The uses of this plant historically have been numerous, but we can also benefit from Datura in the future. Detoxification of the environment used to be taken care of by nature back when human beings lived in a more harmonious relationship with the earth. With increasing amounts of pollution resulting from modernization and industrialization, cleaning up the mess becomes a Larger challenge every day. The Datura plant can aid in these efforts. "The shrub Datura stramonium can act like a toxin sponge, leaching heavy-metal elements from polluted soils. The toxins are concentrated in its tissue, which can then be removed" (McKenna 1989:8). When discovering this Information, I was further Impressed with the belief that only by becoming more in touch with plants and nature can we hope to sustain as a species in the future. By ignoring the knowledge plants such as Datura can offer, we miss the very means by which to insure our own survival.
Literature Cited
Avery, Amos G., S. Satina, and J. Rietsema. Blakeslee: The Genus Datura. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1959.
Blakeslee, Albert F. "Extra Chromosomes, A Source of Variations in the Jimson Weed." Annual Report of the Board of Regents o the Smithsonian institution 1930. Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1931.
Conklin, Marie E "Genetic and Biochemical Aspects of the Development of Datura" Monographs in Developmental Biology. New York: Karger, 1976.
Heiser, Charles B. Jr. Nightshades., The Paradoxical Plants. San Francisco: WH Freeman and Co., 1969.
Hutchens, Alma R. Indian Herbalogy of North America. Boston: Shambala, 1991.
James, G.M. "Effects of Manuring on Growth and Alkaloid Content of Medicinal Plants." Economic Botany 2 (1947): 230-237.
Lewis, Walter H. and M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. Medical Botany: Plants
Effecting Man's Health. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977.
McKenna, Terence. Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge. New York: Bantam Books, 1992.
McKenna, Terence. "Plan, Plant, Planet." Whole Earth Review (64) Fall 1989.
Safford, William E. "Daturas of the Old World and New: An Account of their Narcotic Properties and their Use in Oracular and Initiatory Ceremonies." Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution 1920. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922.
Schultes, Richard E. and Albert Hoffman. Plants of the Gods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979.
Siegel, Ronald K. Intoxication: Life in Pursuit of Artificial Paradise. New York: EP Dutton, 1989.
EBL HOME PAGE
Southern Illinois University Carbondale / Ethnobotanical Leaflets /
URL: http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/
Last updated: 09-December-97 / du ************************
The Genus Datura: From Research Subject
to Powerful Hallucinogen
By Kirsten Bonde
Datura is one of the most interesting plants with hallucinogenic properties. Despite having a reputation as one of the 'darker' hallucinogens, it has been widely used by societies historically in both the Old World and the New, and continues to be today. For those interested in ethnobotanical uses of this plant world-wide, Datura is a fascinating topic. While being limited in its uses economically, the alkaloids contained in the plant have been in demand in the past and its application as a subject for botanical research is vast. Heiser has stated that "Datura is a genus of contrasts - from smelly weeds to lovely ornamentals." This paper will attempt to provide an overview of this varied genus, with specific attention being given to Datura stramonium, most common in North America.
Datura belongs to the family Solanaceae, the nightshades, which Includes some 2,400 species in total (Siegel 1989:36). Other plants with narcotic properties in this family are mandrake (Mandrogora), belladonna (Atropa), henbane (Hyoscyamus), and tobacco (Nicotiana). Appropriately called the "paradoxical plants" by Heiser, this family also includes such common food plants as the tomato, potato, and eggplant (Safford 1922:539). There seems to be some disagreement as to how many sections and species belong to the genus Datura. Conklin (1976:3-4) states that herbaceous Datura is now divided into five sections, while the older citation by Avery (1959:18) claims only four. in any case, this genus contains about ten different herbaceous species, the most important ones being D. stramonium, D. inoxia, D. metel, and D. ceratocaula (Schultes 1979:41-42).
Common names for Datura are numerous, some of the most common ones being raving nightshade, thorn apple, stinkweed, Devil's apple, Jimson weed, and angel's trumpet (Heiser 1969:140 and Avery 1959:19). Datura can be found throughout Asia, Europe, and the Americas as either native or adventive plants, and some have also been found in Africa and Australia (Conklin 1976:5). The epicenter of diversity of this plant is in the New World, specifically in Andean South America and in the southwestern United States/Mexico region (Lewis 1977:423-4). This data correlates with the generally agreed upon origin of Datura, although this topic was debated for some time. Researchers now believe the plant originated and evolved in Mexico and the American Southwest, followed by adaptive radiation into new desert environments (Conklin 1976:5).
Today, Datura (mainly the species stramonium) can be found all over North America as a roadside weed, but never in mountainous or forested habitats (Hutchens 1991:166). A possible explanation for its success as a weed has been offered by Heiser, who argues that the long duration of the seeds is responsible. Tests have shown that Datura seeds stored for 39 years still had a germination rate of 90% (Heiser 1969:140). The plant seems to prefer xeric environments and has an annual or short-lived perennial life cycle (Conklin 1976:5). Since Datura is not a widely grown crop plant, estimations on yield were difficult to locate. The only mention on the topic was in reference to experiments carried out to determine the effect of manure and other nitrogenous fertilizers on the plant. "In 1911 yields from Datura stramonium were reported as increasing from 23 kg. per 100 square meters, on unmanured land to 33 kg. per 100 square meters on land which had been dunged with farmyard manure" (James 1947:230-231).
The earliest mention of a plant of this genus was by the Arab Avicenna in the 11 th century in an account of Arabian medicinal plants, later translated by Dioscorides. The "nut" of the plant was recognized by early botanists as a fruit of a solanaceous plant, later called Datura metel (Avery 1959:3). The generic name of Datura was first used by Linnaeus in his 1737 publication Hortus Cliffortianus. Objecting to "barbaric" nomenclature, he latinized Dhatura or Dutra into the modem name of Datura (Avery 1959:17). The English herbalist Gerard also made mention of Datura in reference to the plant Greek writer Theocrastus called Hippomanes, thought to drive horses mad. He also believed Datura was responsible for putting the priests of Apollo in ancient Greece into their prophetic state (Schultes 1979:109).
Later historical accounts of Datura include Christoval Acosta's Tractado de las Drogas y Medicinas de las Indias Orientales (1578). He describes the use of Datura in the East Indies as an aphrodisiac and also states that the seeds were highly prized treasures by Hindu enamorades, who ground them into a powder to be added to wine or some other medium. Herbalist Li Shi-Chen, in a work on Chinese medicines entitled Peu ts'ao Kang mu (15 90), explained the origin of the Chinese name for Datura. Man t'o lo h ua is said to be taken from the famous Buddhist sutra "Fa hua ching," which states that when Buddha preaches a sermon from heaven, dew forms on the petals of Datura from raindrops. According to the Taoist tradition though, the name refers to a specific star whose envoy is supposed to carry a Datura flower in one hand (Safford 1922:540). These early accounts of the plant offer valuable insight into its widespread use and rich history. But while Datura continued to.be investigated, the most thorough study was conducted in the early 20th century by Albert F. Blakeslee, who spent most of his career using the plant to conduct groundbreaking research Into plant genetics.
Perhaps the most Important contribution of Datura, at least in sclentIfIc terms, is its use as a research subject to better understand fundamental biological principles (Heiser 1069:141). Datura plants contain 12 pairs of chromosomes normally, but trisomic (2n+1) individuals can be grown which have an extra chromosome in one of their twelve sets. This was discovered by Blakeslee, who went on to identify twelve primary mutants, each with one of the normal chromosomes as an extra, and for many of these, two secondary mutants where the extra chromosome was a reduplicated half of the one of the normal ones (Avery 1959:viii). The Blakeslee himself understood the Implications of his work, as evident when he wrote an article for Smithsonian in 1930 and stated, "...it is our belief that in the future extra chromosomes will be consciously utilized as a source of desirable variations in plants of economic Importance" (449). How right he was!
Another great accomplishment was the discovery of a haploid in Datura by Blakeslee. "This was the f1rst haploid to be found in vascular plants and created something of a sensation. Haploid plants, one thought, should be gamophytes, but here was a little plant, rather weak and nearly sterile, that was clearly a sporophyte, but that had only one set of chromosomes in its cells" (Avery 1959.-Vili). With this research, much interest in polyploidy was aroused and investigations continued.
While a total of six stages in the polyploidy series of Datura have now been Identified (1n, 2n, 3n, 4n, 6n, and 8n), the Initial work by Blakeslee was of vast importance. With the finding of polyploids containing four sets of chromosomes Instead of two "was born the concept of genic balance; that is, an organism that has complete extra sets of all of its genes is not very different from a normal organism of its type, whereas an organism that has a single extra chromosome, giving it an extra 'dose' of the genes carried on this chromosome and thus changing the ratio of these genes to those bome on the other chromosomes, has a profoundly changed appearance" (Heiser 1969:142). The research conducted by Blakeslee during his lifetime were of immeasurable value to such diverse aspects of botany as genetics, cytology, physiology, morphology, and anatomy. in the process of this, the Datura plant itself has become better understood. The numerous variations genetically in the plant has amazed many researchers and it is believed that "Datura now probably displays a larger number of distinguishable types due to gene mutations than any other species of plants except corn" (Avery 1959:110).
Being a known hallucinogen, the chemistry and alkaloid composition of Datura also becomes important if one is to understand the plant itself as well as its history. The main alkaloids of medicinal value in Datura are members of the tropane class, namely atropine, hyoscyamine, and hyoscine (Avery 1959:48). All are commonly grouped under the headings of stramonine or daturine (Heiser 1969:141), and are present in varying concentrations in all parts of the plant. The variance is due to the stage of development of the plant and the environmental conditions it is grown in. There is a decreases in the concentration during the day and an increase at night, as well as less following a rainy period than after clear weather (Lewis 1977:419). The effect of environmental factors has been shown to cause as much variation as that found between specific races (Avery 1959:48).
The medicinal value of the alkaloids themselves is significant, but Datura is not considered the best source for them. Atropine is present in small amounts in Datura and can be extracted from hyoscyarnine in a commercial process. The alkaloid has a paralyzing action that helps relieve bronchial spasms in the treatment of asthma. Old-fashioned methods of treating this respiratory problem included use of an inhaler containing stramonine and belladonna (also a primary source of atropine). When the supply of belladonna was cut off during World War II, the United States began intentional cultivation of D. stramonium as a domestic source of atropine. This was abandoned later because imported belladonna was cheaper than domestic Datura resources (Heiser 1969:141).
The daturine alkaloids are also known to cause dilation of the pupil of the eye (mydriasis) and paralysis of the muscles of accommodation (cycloplegia). They effect the nervous system too, with atropine acting as a stimulant and hyoscine as a depressant. Atropine is used to counteract the depression associated with morphine and hyoscine acts as an antidote to highly toxic phosphate insecticides and so called "nerve gases." Other applications of hyoscine Include prevention of motion sickness, as an analgesic along with morphine in obstetrics to produce "twilight sleep," and as a truth drug (Avery 1959:51).
While people may not have been aware of the chemical constituency of Datura, the plant was used medicinally all over the world in historical times. in the Old World, the Chinese used Datura to treat colds and nervous conditions (Siegel 1989:21). in India, the powdered seeds were mixed with butter and taken internally for impotence as well as being applied to genitalia to obtain sexual vigor (Lewis 1977:330). Referred to as the tuft of Shiva, the god of destruction, Datura was also used in the form of a liquid extract by thugs - worshipers of Kali, the goddess of fertility and death - to stupefy sacrificial victims. The plant was also given to young girls in India to bring them Into prostitution as well as on their clients (Siegel 1989:21). The leaves were smoked as well in that country to relieve asthma (Lewis 1977:395).
European usage of Datura can be traced back to pagan rituals. The Church suppressed knowledge of the plant during the medieval witch-burning period and associated Datura and other plants such as deadly nightshade and monkshood with the Devil. "...flying ointments and magical salves were compounded out of Datura roots and seeds, parts of the plant rich in delirium- and delusion-producing tropane alkaloids. When this material was applied to the witch's body, it produced states of extraordinary derangement and delusion" (McKenna 1992:90). The use of broomsticks by witches can be explained by these practices, serving to apply the salves to sensitive vaginal membranes (Lewis 1977:420).
Experiments on these controversial religious practices were carried out by Andres Laguna, a physician to Pope Julius III, and showed how the salves containing Datura took the women on "Journeys" by producing dreams only, contrary to widely-held folk beliefs of the period. Giovanni Battista Porta, a colleague of Galileo and who also took part in Laguna's experiment, described how men drank potions of Datura to create the illusion of being a bird or beast. The men wore wolfs skin and ran about on all fours following ingestion of the hallucinogen, providing the basis of our modem werewolf stories (Siegel 1989:22).
While Datura was definitely used in the Old World, no where did it have as much application as in the New World. The seeds were used by ancient Peruvians in trepanning operations as an anesthetic and archeological evidence Indicates that these complex surgical procedures had a higher survival rate than one would expect (Heiser 1969:136). The use of enema syringes in Peru dates back to 600800 AD and could have contained Datura among other things, considering the vast herbal knowledge of the healers of this region (McKenna 1992:197-8). Wild and cultivated species of Datura were also used in other parts of western South America by indigenous peoples to Induce partial intoxication, to control unruly children, and the plant was given in large doses along with tobacco to women and slaves to deaden their senses before being buried alive with their dead husbands or masters. Extracts made from the bark, leaves, and seeds were also used in shamanistic rites and practices of this region (Avery 1959:4).
The Aztecs also made use of Datura, specifically D. meteloides, which they called ololluhqui "the magic plant," for all kinds of diseases including paralysis and as an ointment for cuts or wounds (Safford 1922:550). The plant's narcotic effects were employed by Aztecan shamans and priests to communicate with spirits, causing visions and stimulating people to dance, laugh, weep, sleep, or tell oracular prophecies. The seeds were considered sacred and kept on altars or in secret boxes and sacrificial offerings made to them by the Aztecs (Avery 1959:4).
Zuni Indians and other cultures in the American Southwest and Mexican region used Datura as well and referred to it as toloache Used to relieve pain during the setting of bones among other things, D. meteloides was the most universally used drug in the region. it was also taken by young boys in male initiation rituals and used in ceremonies following the death of a member of the tribe (Avery 1959:4). Attitudes toward the plant varied among tribes from no special reverence to attribution of supernatural powers. But while knowledge of this plant was widespread among Native Americans, early colonialists were not as aware of Its properties. An interesting example of this is what happened to British soldiers in 1676 sent to Jamestown, Virginia to quell Bacon's Rebellion. After including Datura stramonium in a salad, the soldiers were reported to have gone mad for eleven or so days before the effects finally wore off. This incident is probably the source for Datura's common name jimsonweed, a shortened version of James Town weed (Avery 1959:5).
From an anthropological perspective, the use of Datura stramonium by Algonquin Indians of Virginia in their huskanawing ceremony provides an excellent example, of the role of hallucinogens during the liminal period in rites of passage. The concept of liminality was first discussed by Arnold Van Gennep in his Rites o Passaga (1908) and later elaborated on by Victor Turner. The liminal period is one part of rites of passage during which initiates are removed from social space and involved in reflection and learning about their particular society. Victor Turner has pointed to the Importance of studying this phenomenon in order to understand processes of social change generationally within a culture. The use of Datura in this rite provides such insight.
Beverly in his History of Virginia (1705) described the rite of huskanawing. The rite was practiced by Algonquins every fourteen or sixteen years and involved taking the "choicest and briskest" young men of the society into the woods and ritually administering an intoxicating medicine (wysoccan), containing Datura, to them. The rite was necessary if the young men hoped to become great men or officers within their society. Kept in cages or enclosures for several months, the local medicine men carefully fed the boys only wysoccan, causing them to become "stark, raving mad" for a period of eighteen or twenty days so as to "perfectly lose the remembrance of all former things, even of their parents, their treasure, and their language." When sufficient dosages had been administered, the amount was reduced gradually and the young men slowly returned to their senses. But before the potion completely wore off, the boys were brought back, into their village and carefully observed to see if any memories of their former life as boys were discovered. If one did show signs of remembering, the entire ritual had to be undergone again, this time greatly endangering the life of the initiate (Safford 1922:558-9).
While this may serve as a severe example of liminality, the purpose of the rite being one of transition follows Van Gennep's and Turner's theory perfectly. As Beverly describes, the boys are forced to relearn all aspects of their culture, "...thus they unlive their former lives, and commence men by forgetting that they ever have been boys" (Safford 1922:558-9). In order to become fully adult, socialized members of Algonquin society, the boys must leave their former role of boyhood and its accompanying memories behind. While possible reasons for the severity of the ritual are beyond the scope of this paper, the account by Beverly struck me as Important enough to Include and is worth further research in the future.
While the above descriptions make it appear like Datura is a fairly widely used, relatively harmless hallucinogenic plant, this is not at all the case. There is adequate reason for Datura's dark -reputation and probably one of the more famous examples has to do with Abraham Lincoln's mother, Nancy Hanks. She apparently drank milk from a local cow that had grazed on the plant and consequently developed "milk sickness," a slow but fatal disease. Her death effected Lincoln tremendously and caused the President to remain abstinent from alcohol for the remainder of his life (Siegel 1989:259). The possibility of poisoning when taking Datura is fairly high and occurs often with symptoms similar to belladonna. As discussed earlier, chemical composition of the plant varies with environmental conditions the plant is grown In, thereby making it difficult to determine a safe dosage. Cases of children eating parts of the plant have often been reported, attracted by the colorful flowers and seedpods. Livestock poisoning seems to be rarer, possible due to Datura's odor and taste (Lewis 1977:54).
With its long history of human usage, one may ask how people learned to use Datura safely. One possible answer lies in the foraging habits of animals. Tribal peoples, living in a much closer relationship with nature, probably observed the effects Datura had on different species of animals and copied their eating strategies when consuming the hallucinogen themselves. Modern scientists have watched hawk moths feed on the flowers at night and become disoriented. Nonetheless, the moths continue to attempt to return to the plant for further feeding. Hummingbirds also favor Datura and after ingesting the narcotic perch, fluff their feathers, and then freeze stiff like corpses for several hours (Siegel 1989:25). Other research has also demonstrated that animals chose to eat hallucinogenic plants on an infrequent basis only, seeming to realize that tolerances can easily develop with regular usage.
Interestingly, some animals are unaffected by Datura Beetles have developed biochemical defenses against the plants potent chemicals and ants appear to have done the same, often being observed carrying away the seeds. Bees are unaffected as well and various species of birds are known to eat the seeds, thereby acting as a dispersal mechanism for the plant (Siegel 1989:24). Using animals as a model to learn from, ancient hunters and gatherers probably began using Datura and many incorporated it into shamanistic rituals, a more controlled environment for ingestion of such a powerful and dangerous hallucinogen.
The uses of this plant historically have been numerous, but we can also benefit from Datura in the future. Detoxification of the environment used to be taken care of by nature back when human beings lived in a more harmonious relationship with the earth. With increasing amounts of pollution resulting from modernization and industrialization, cleaning up the mess becomes a Larger challenge every day. The Datura plant can aid in these efforts. "The shrub Datura stramonium can act like a toxin sponge, leaching heavy-metal elements from polluted soils. The toxins are concentrated in its tissue, which can then be removed" (McKenna 1989:8). When discovering this Information, I was further Impressed with the belief that only by becoming more in touch with plants and nature can we hope to sustain as a species in the future. By ignoring the knowledge plants such as Datura can offer, we miss the very means by which to insure our own survival.
Literature Cited
Avery, Amos G., S. Satina, and J. Rietsema. Blakeslee: The Genus Datura. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1959.
Blakeslee, Albert F. "Extra Chromosomes, A Source of Variations in the Jimson Weed." Annual Report of the Board of Regents o the Smithsonian institution 1930. Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1931.
Conklin, Marie E "Genetic and Biochemical Aspects of the Development of Datura" Monographs in Developmental Biology. New York: Karger, 1976.
Heiser, Charles B. Jr. Nightshades., The Paradoxical Plants. San Francisco: WH Freeman and Co., 1969.
Hutchens, Alma R. Indian Herbalogy of North America. Boston: Shambala, 1991.
James, G.M. "Effects of Manuring on Growth and Alkaloid Content of Medicinal Plants." Economic Botany 2 (1947): 230-237.
Lewis, Walter H. and M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. Medical Botany: Plants
Effecting Man's Health. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1977.
McKenna, Terence. Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge. New York: Bantam Books, 1992.
McKenna, Terence. "Plan, Plant, Planet." Whole Earth Review (64) Fall 1989.
Safford, William E. "Daturas of the Old World and New: An Account of their Narcotic Properties and their Use in Oracular and Initiatory Ceremonies." Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution 1920. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922.
Schultes, Richard E. and Albert Hoffman. Plants of the Gods. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979.
Siegel, Ronald K. Intoxication: Life in Pursuit of Artificial Paradise. New York: EP Dutton, 1989.
EBL HOME PAGE
Southern Illinois University Carbondale / Ethnobotanical Leaflets /
URL: http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/
Last updated: 09-December-97 / du
*****************************
POPPY
DIVINE HERB OF JOY -
OR EVIL WEED OF DAEMONS?
Who doesn't know this gorgeous flower, herald of the summer season? Poppy is a familiar sight throughout much of Europe. It commonly grows wild in corn fields or is cultivated as an ornamental in gardens. It is indeed lovely to see the delicate petals waft in the wind, mingling amongst the corn. Alas, it is a fleeting beauty - the pretty flowers only last a few days. Soon the petals fall away to reveal a bulging seed-pod, the true keeper of the Poppy's secret. Whilst most of us know that the tiny gray-blue seeds are used in baking or were sometimes pressed to yield a fine oil, few of us think of the Poppy as a powerful sacred herb. The greatest gift of this sacred plant is concealed within the its milky juice. This latex is present within the tissues of the whole plant, but is most prolific and potent in the capsules prior to the ripening of the seed. This juice, commonly referred to as 'raw Opium', has been known about and utilized for thousands of years.
As one of the most ancient 'culture plants' Poppies have been a companion to humanity since its infancy during the upper Neolithic period. According to archeological studies, remains of Poppies have been found in prehistoric settlements in central Europe, Switzerland, Southern Germany and Southern England which date to at least 4000 BC. Scholars argue among themselves about the origin of this mysterious and strikingly beautiful magical herb. Some sources claim Asia as its original habitat, others the eastern Mediterranean region. Recent research seems to point at central and southern Europe as its original home, from where it is believed to have spread south to Egypt, east to India, Pakistan and China and north to England. Why Neolithic farmers should have cultivated a plant such as Poppy is also a point of argument. Some scientists have proposed the theory that it was grown for its edible seeds and the oil that could be pressed from them for use as a cooking oil as well as for lamp fuel. Whilst these uses may well have played a role, there are many other plants that could have been used for these purposes which would have been easier to process. It is more likely that our ancestors held Poppies in special regard for their psychotropic powers which may well have played a significant role within a ceremonial or ritual context.
Naturally it is difficult for Ethnoarcheologists to substantiate their theories on prehistoric plant uses since organic matter has a habit of decomposing and conditions rarely allow for such substances to survive to the present day and age. Knowledge pertaining to the uses of plants was passed down as an oral tradition through successive generations for thousands of years before written language was even invented. However, based on what we know about the roles that psychoactive plants play in aboriginal societies even today, it is more than likely that our ancestors were not ignorant of the hidden powers of Poppy. Furthermore, it is likely that knowledge regarding such 'magical' plants, which allowed humans to transcend the world of mundane concerns and to commune with the Gods, were particularly sacred and not the subject of everyday breakfast conversations. Thus, the clues are indeed vague. We have to look at ancient mythologies and imagery to trace the hidden meaning and significance of sacred plants, which in turn may give some hints to yet more ancient traditional knowledge.
In ancient Greece Poppies were considered sacred to Hypnos, the God of sleep. Ancient imagery often depicts Hypnos with Poppy heads in his hands and adorning his head. The doorway to his drowsy realm was also surrounded with Poppies. He brought prophetic dreams and soothed the pain of those suffering from emotional agony. The Romans knew this God as Somnus, a name which still echoes in Poppy's Latin name 'Papaver somniferus' - somnus ferre - bringer of sleep. But Poppy was also associated with Thanatos, or Hades the Lord of Dead and of eternal sleep, for it can also bring death. Such myths reveal Poppy as a plant of the Underworld, associated with both temporal and eternal sleep.
Indeed, some archeological finds at ancient burial sites confirm Poppy's status as a sacred plant that was intimately connected with the rites of passage to the Underworld. At a site, known as 'Cueva de los Murci�lagos' (Bat Cave) situated near Albu�ol, (Granada) in Southern Spain evidence for this hypothesis has been discovered. The human remains found there were accompanied by bags of Esparto grass (Stipa tenacissima), containing numerous Poppy seed capsules. Subsequent carbon dating established the date of the burial at around 4200 BC. Likewise, a vase containing Opium remains has been discovered at the tomb of Kha at Deir el-Med�na in Egypt, though this is thought to be of a more recent age. (3000+ years old)
In the days of Antiquity, Poppy was not just valued for its magical properties. Its medicinal powers, particularly evident in the potent latex, were no secret. It was used as a sedative and painkiller, to calm hysterics, lighten melancholy and heal colic, diarrhoea and persistent spasmodic coughs. It was also considered to be a powerful aphrodisiac. Dioscurides describes the process of obtaining the latex (raw Opium), which he calls 'opion' in detail:
'Those who wish to obtain the sap (of the Poppy) must go after the dew has dried and draw their knife around the star in such a manner as not to penetrate the inside of the capsule, and also make straight incisions down the sides. Then with your finger wipe the extruding tear into a shell. When you return to it not long after, you will find the sap thickened and the next day you will find it much the same. Pound the sap in your mortar and roll the mass into pills."
The oldest text that mentions Poppy is of Sumerian origin and dates to about 3000 BC. The text refers to Poppy as a 'herb of joy'. It is also mentioned in the famous Ebers Papyrus (1600 BC) along with several other important healing plants. In Egypt it was also used medicinally - as a sedative painkiller for wounds and abscesses as well as for scalp complaints (?). Another Egyptian text, dating to about 1300 BC describes the custom of giving Poppy to children to stop them from crying. This ancient tradition has survived in northern Africa and the Asia Minor, and even, until the beginning of this century, was still practiced in some rural areas of northern France. It is said that it keeps children quiet, but also makes them stupid, as this remedy tends to make them sleep a lot.
In ancient Greece Poppies were sacred to Demeter, the Earth-Goddess who taught wo/mankind the art of wheat and barley cultivation. Her myth is a sad story, for her only daughter, Persephone, was abducted by Hades, the Lord of the Underworld. One day, whilst out in the fields picking flowers and playing with her friends a deep chasm suddenly opened up in front of her and out came Hades. With one big swoop he grabbed the screaming girl and as quickly as he had appeared, vanished again into the abyss. Nobody had seen him commit this crime, for he was wearing his cap of invisibility. Demeter had heard her daughter's cry and as swiftly as a bird went off to find her - but in vain. Persephone had vanished and no one would tell Demeter whence she had gone. All over the surface of the Earth she searched for her lost daughter, neither eating, nor drinking as she went. Finally Helios and Hecate took pity on her and told her the truth. The story goes on to tell how Demeter, learning that Zeus had consented to Hades crime, swore never to set foot on mount Olympus again. Filled with rage and grief she refused to eat or drink or wash herself. She took refuge with some mortals, lived with them and suckled a mortal child, who grew to be 'almost' like the Gods themselves, but that is another story and shall be told another time... She taught her mysteries to the mortals and bid them to build a temple for her at Eleusis where they should perform her sacred rites each year at harvest time. And so it was done. But when she took leave from the mortals her heart was still full of grief for she was still without her daughter. For a whole year she let the Earth go barren until finally Zeus understood that he had to do something about the situation. He sent all the Gods to plead with Demeter, but to no avail. Finally he sent Mercury to make a deal with Hades to let Persephone return to the surface of the Earth and see her mother once again. But clever Hades secretly gave Persephone a seed of Pomegranate to eat before she left and thus ensured that she would return to him once a year.
During the long search for her abducted daughter, Demeter was said to have found some relief from her pain by taking Poppy when she arrived at Mykon. Poppies are companion plants of wheat and barley, and the round-bellied, seed-filled capsules were regarded as a symbol of fertility. It is likely that Poppies also played an important role in Demeter's sacred rites at Eleusis. The mycologist Gordon Wasson proposed the hypothesis, that the active ingredient of the ritual brew given to the initiates at Eleusis was Ergot (Claviceps purpurea ), a psychotropic fungus that commonly grows on Barley, Rye and sometimes Wheat. This hypothesis, though it has been much debated, is quite likely true. A. Hoffman makes the point, that while Ergot contains some poisonous principles which can have a severe effect on those who might take it, these toxic alkaloids are non-watersoluable. It was therefore quite possible for the ancient Greeks to prepare a ritual brew that specifically excluded those agents or even use a species of Ergot found on a type of Wild Grass, which does not contain those compounds at all. The ill effects of Ergot poisoning expressed themselves in 'St. Anthony's Fire', a dreadful condition marked by convulsions, epileptic cramps and sometimes even loss of limbs due to an outbreak of foul blisters that literally rot the flesh away. Opium however, has been mentioned as a remedy against St. Anthony's fire, and it is highly likely that the sacred plant of Demeter was added to the ritual brew, both to prevent such cases of poisoning and to add a more peaceful and blissful dimension to the mystical experience of these sacred rites. Besides, the mysteries were a celebration of fertility and are said to have had a highly sexual content. Whilst Ergot can cause powerful visions and hallucinations, it is not generally known for its aphrodisiac properties. Poppy on the other hand had a well known reputation as a potent aphrodisiac and was also a symbol of fertility. Moreover, as has been demonstrated above, it was also connected to the Gods of the Underworld and thus combined all the aspects of Demeter's mysteries within itself.
It is interesting to note that after the 1st World War Poppies became a symbol of remembrance rather than forgetfulness. To this day it is customary in England to wear a paper Poppy each year on the 11th of November as a symbol of remembrance for the soldiers who died in Flounders. It is said that in the year after the war, when people first returned to the site of the awful battles all they saw were fields and fields of scarlet red Poppies, which reminded them of the blood that had been shed there. These Poppies were Corn Poppies (Papaver rhoeas) rather than Opium-Poppies, though it maybe significant that since the rise of the Peace movement in England the habit of wearing a white paper Poppy as a symbol of peace and forgiveness has also become quite popular. Remembering Demeter's pain at the loss of her daughter, we can be sure that partaking of the Poppy plant did not make her forget her pain, but simply eased it - perhaps that is the deeper meaning of the Poppies association with the killing fields of Flounders - we remember the dead, not to stir up the pain, but to ease it through forgiveness.
Another myths relates how Poppies had sprung from the tears of Aphrodite when she mourned for her beloved Adonis. Cyprus, the birthplace of Aphrodite, was one of the major regions of Poppy cultivation and it is thought that it was from here that Opium was first exported to Egypt. Numerous vases (known as Cypriote Base Ring I jugs) that resemble an upside down Poppy capsule have been found in Tell el-Amarna. Upon examination these vases, stemming from the period of the 18th Dynasty in Egypt, were shown to contain remains of Opium. It is hard to tell whether the contents of these juglets had been used for ritual or recreational purposes, - or both. It is known however, that in Egypt too Opium had been used for its powerful aphrodisiac properties. Even Queen Cleopatra was apparently familiar with its uses. Her enchanting potion is thought to have been a combination of palmwine, Opium and some type of nightshade (mandrake?).
In Europe the use of Opium was widely spread since ancient times, but it was Andromachos' and his invention of Theriak which made its healing powers available on every market place. Theriak was a potion consisting of about sixty different substances which swiftly became one of the most commonly used panaceas throughout the old world. Paracelsus eventually simplified the recipe though it maintained the same popular appeal.
The English Doctor Thomas Sydenham, developed yet another version of the elixir which became known as Laudanum. Apart from Opium it also contained Saffron, Cinnamon and Cloves, all macerated in Spanish wine. The first serious cases of Opium addiction in the West developed on account of excessive use of Laudanum. This was due to the fact that Laudanum was often overprescribed for children, which resulted in increased resistance to the drug in adulthood.
Throughout the Middle Ages Poppy not only gained popularity due to its medicinal powers but it also acquired quite a reputation in connection with folkloristic magic. It's associations with the goddess Aphrodite made Poppy a herb of choice for many love charms and potions and it was considered most effective as a divinatory herb with regard to matters of the heart. For example, one could determine from which direction one's true love would appear by tossing a piece of Poppy cake out of the door and sending a dog out to fetch it. From whence the dog would reappear provided the answer to the question. One could also use Poppies to obtain prophetic dreams about one's future husband - on St. Andrews night maidens would scatter Poppy seeds behind them to dream about their hoped for husbands. Alternatively one could empty the seed capsule and write a question of the heart onto a piece of paper, put this into the seed pod and place it underneath the pillow. The answer to one's question would be revealed in a dream.
As mentioned above, the plentiful seeds concealed in the round-bellied Poppy seed capsule had long been regarded as a symbol of fertility and prosperity. A traditional New Year's Eve custom was to prepare sweet-breads made with Poppy seeds as a magical food. Partaking of such bread was thought to convey the magical powers of the plant and thus bless the recipients with abundance for the New Year. Alternatively one could make use of these properties by making a necklace with gilded Poppy heads, which could be worn as a charm. On the other hand, Poppy seeds hidden in the shoes of a bride was believed to make her infertile.
It was probably Poppy's association with the Gods of the Underworld that gave rise to a charm for invisibility. After all, Hades' had worn a cap that rendered him invisible when he abducted Persephone. It has been proposed that his cap was an allusion to this magical herb. At any rate, an invisibility potion could be prepared by steeping Poppy seeds in wine for 15 days. Thereafter a glassful of the brew should be taken for five consecutive days whilst fasting. This was said to make the person invisible at will.
Poppy seeds were also considered a magical aid against Daemons. If one was unfortunate enough to be pursued by such nasty creatures one could throw a handful of seeds in their path. This would distract the daemons from their aim as they would feel compelled to stop and count the seeds. This charm was even believed to ward off vampires who were sometimes thought to violate fresh graves. If Poppy seeds were put into the coffin with the dead person's body any preying vampires also lost their purpose for the same reason.
The Doctrine of Signatures consigned Poppy as a herb of Saturn and deemed its qualities either cold and moist as in the case of white Poppies, or cool and dry for black Poppies. Thus they were regarded as an antidote for St. Anthony's fire (antipathetic), and as a remedy for melancholy (sympathetic). Of course Poppy was also associated with various witches brews and it has been speculated that Opium was one of the integral parts of the infamous Witche's Flying Ointment. Since no authentic written recipe for this salve exists the hypothesis is hard to verify. However, taking into account the tales of people who claimed to have used the ointment and considering the properties of Opium, it is more than likely that it was indeed an important ingredient. Other magical uses associated with witchcraft and magic during the Middle Ages include the use of Poppy leaves and petals, as well as raw Opium as an incense ingredient for rituals of divination as well as using Poppy potions in connection with orgiastic rites and sex magic.
Given such associations, it is perhaps surprising that Poppies even became absorbed into Christian symbolism. However, this is a typical development - many magically potent herbs that had long been associated with the old Gods eventually became 'christianized' by associating them with Christian Saints and symbols. Thus, the red petals of the Poppy and the cross-formation on the top of the seed capsule were regarded as a symbol of the Passion and the Eucharists saw a symbol of the savior in the combination of Wheat and Poppies - the wheat representing the body of Christ, whilst the red petals of the Poppies were seen as his blood.
Meanwhile, the Arabs had spread Poppies and the knowledge of its uses in the East during their Asian crusades. Since the 11th century it was cultivated in many parts of Asia. As in Europe, they were much appreciated for their medicinal usefulness, though the Orientals seemed to be particularly fond of Opium's aphrodisiac effect. In India Poppies naturally became associated with Shiva, the shaman god of ecstasy and inner vision. Sadhus sometimes mixed the leaves with those of Shiva's other sacred plants, Cannabis and Datura. Opium is also thought to have played an important role as ritual drug in the practice of Tantra. It was soon absorbed into the Ajurvedic healing system and Indian doctors praised the aphrodisiac properties of the herb. The part of the Ayurveda that deals with potions and remedies for the reproductive system declares Opium as an effective tonic that could prolong erection and delay ejaculation whilst enhancing sensual pleasure. The aphrodisiac effect of Opium is said to be stronger when it is eaten rather than smoked. A certain preparation known as 'Oriental Happiness Pills', gained some fame in this respect. Sometimes known as 'Nepenthe', these pills were said to contain powdered tops of Cannabis, Opium, Arecanut, sugar and spices.[R�tsch]
The knowledge pertaining to Poppy and its uses spread from India to China along the ancient trading routes. The Chinese also delighted in the aphrodisiac properties of the plant and some writers claim that China became one of the most fruitful nations on Earth due to its appetite for Opium. For several centuries the Chinese enjoyed Opium, either by eating it pure or mixing it with other herbs and substances also known for their aphrodisiac properties (e.g. Ginseng). Opium pressed into fish-shaped forms was sold as 'Ying-tsu-su' literally meaning 'fish and water are coming together' - an obvious allusion to sexual intercourse. [R�tsch] The habit of smoking Opium only arose in the 17th century and since then Opium dens have spread all over China. Their popularity may be compared to that of bars in the modern day western world.
Opium consumption became such a popular pass-time in China that it lead to serious social problems. Before very long, China began to consume more Opium than it could cultivate - a situation that was promptly exploited by the British. Previously Britain had been in debt to China since it imported more silk and spices than what it could trade for. Britain quickly realized the potential for exploitation with regard to China's Opium consumption. To supply China's growing need the British East-India Company soon planted massive Poppy plantations in Bengal. The Emperor of China, realizing the potential for financial and human devastation, tried in vain to restrict the flood of imports - but it was too late. The only result was an incredibly lucrative black market business. The British knew how to bribe the Chinese officials and thus ensure their co-operation - even in the face of death penalties threatened by the Chinese Government. The turnover of Opium on the black-market rose from 12000kg in 1729 to 2400000kg in 1835! Eventually China realized that it was fighting a loosing battle and in order to pay off its huge debt, conceded to make deals with Britain. The trade deficit was supposed to be paid with tea exports to Britain.
However, in 1838, Chinese officials unexpectedly destroyed 20 000 boxes of Opium which had been stored in Hong Kong, one of the most significant trading ports. This incidence caused the first so-called 'Opium-war'. After 2 years of fighting, China surrendered and accepted the demands of the British - a hefty fine as compensation for the boxes that had been dumped into the sea, as well as Amoy and Hong Kong as a booty for Britain. A further incident in 1856 caused yet more fighting and Britain, this time supported by France, invaded China. This war resulted in further trade benefits for the West and lifting of the restrictions on Opium trade. Due to a forced drug dependency China was firmly in the grip of the West. By 1885 the import of Opium had reached quite astronomical proportions - 180000 boxes of 60 kg each! The number of addicts still rose - by 1878 it was estimated at 20 Million people (!) - a situation that did not change until China was eventually 'allowed' to counteract the drug abuse in 1906.
These dark times in the history of Opium also cast their shadow on the western world. However, in the West the numbers of actual Opium users remained relatively small. These were mainly working class people who inadvertently became addicted to Opium containing medicine. At one stage Opium smoking became popular among a small number of people associated with the Avant Garde who were originally attracted to the exotic romanticism surrounding the drug. This fashion only lasted a few years but despite its short duration gave rise to several great works of literature. Coleridge, Edgar Allen Poe, Thomas de Quincey, Baudelaire, Verlaine and Cocteau are all said to have been inspired by the Poppy- muse. The fad soon passed - yet a much more dangerous development was already on its way.
Scientific advances had made it possible to isolate and extract morphine, the most potent alkaloid present in raw Opium. This substance was many times stronger - and far more addictive than Opium. At first its wondrous properties were much praised and it certainly proved its medicinal usefulness during the war of 1870 when it was much employed as an extremely powerful painkiller. The realization that many of the soldiers as well as other sick and suffering people were turning into addicts came soon - but not soon enough.
Morphine use and subsequent addiction spread through all layers of society. There were no official laws aimed at curbing the use of the drug. Whilst the users may have been suffering from their addiction, the habit as such was not considered socially unacceptable. This meant that their condition of dependency did not seriously affect the social life of the user, so long as they could obtain the drug on a regular basis. It was a tolerated dysfunction, perhaps comparable to modern day views on nicotine addiction. However, far worse grief was soon to come... - with the discovery of a still more powerful substance that, in allusion to its 'heroic action', became known as Heroin.
Heroin, a derivative of morphine turned out to exceed morphine's analgesic powers by several times. It even appeared to cure morphine addicts from their habit if they used the new drug instead, - or so it was thought. Alas, Heroin's moment of glory was short-lived indeed before its inherent dangers were realized and its deadly nature became obvious. Unfortunately for the morphine addicts though, - one addiction had merely been replaced by another, far more dangerous and deadly one. The use of Heroin spread dramatically, first in America and later also to Europe. It is interesting to note that whilst America was never a major Opium producer, it still soon became the biggest consumer of the deadly derivative, whereas in many countries where Opium had a long history of use heroin never played a significant role.
Although Opium Poppy was never really cultivated in the New World and is now illegal to grow, an indigenous Poppy relation with lesser activity does in fact have a history of indigenous use among some of the Native American tribes, especially in the Southwestern regions of the U.S. and in parts of Central America. This species, known as 'Prickly Poppy' (Argemone mexicana) has definite Poppy features, though its leaves and overall appearance is much more prickly.
The dried leaves of this plant may have been smoked as an aphrodisiac among the Indians, and may well still be used in that way. The Aztecs, not unlike the ancient Greeks, apparently also associated the plant with their Underworld, and used it for healing and ceremonial purposes.
Whatever the magical and medicinal blessing of the Poppy may be, the dark side of its potent latex must not be underestimated. Whether in the form of Opium, Morphium or Heroin, opiates are addictive, and in that respect the difference between them is only a matter of degree. These days it is often argued that the problem of addiction is more a problem of an addictive personality structure, rather than the object of addiction. While this is no doubt true to a certain degree, it must be said that in a society suffering from a multitude of psychological dysfunctionalities addictive personalities have practically become the norm. Opium as such may not be much more addictive than Nicotine, perhaps even less so, as far as physical addiction is concerned, but anybody who has ever been addicted to Nicotine knows how difficult it is to break the habit - even such a non-gratifying one. How much more difficult to break a habit so seductive as that of Opium use!
The history of Poppy and the cultural uses of Opium and its derivatives aptly illustrate and reflect the psychological development of our civilization. Once upon a time respected and loved as a potent gift of the Gods, which could induce visions of divine bliss, it has now fallen from grace. Not that its inherent qualities have changed, but cultural attitudes and abuses have profaned the sacred gift. In an effort to improve upon nature' by exploiting the power of one of its most potent plants, a poison has been created that turns its users into victims and takes them to the gates of hell. Removed from the sacred sphere where Opium (in its unrefined state) may have been used occasionally as a sacrament, the modern habit of using refined opiates recreationally, opens the doors for shameless exploitation and oppression, which furthermore has developed into a several million dollar black-market industry. The story of Poppy has much to teach us - not just about the herb itself, but more so about ourselves...
(A million questions could and should be raised at this point - but since this is an essay about the cultural uses of Poppy and not on the sociology of drug abuse, its instigators and victims, I shall leave it up to you, dear reader, to ask those questions and to find your own answers - if you are so inclined)
POPPY IN PROFILE
Common names: Opium Poppy, Mawseed, Herb of Joy, Mohn, Klapper-Rosen, Mago, Magesamen, Weismagen, wilder Magen, Magensaph, Rosule
Description: An erect herbaceous annual growing to a height of about 2-3' ft. The leaves and stem are bluish green with a rubbery appearance. The leaves are pinnately lobed with serrated margins that clasp around the stem. The flowers usually have four large petals that vary in colour from white to pink and purple with a dark spot at their base. (Some hybrids and uncommon forms are double flowered). In the center of the flower head, around the ovary are numerous stamens. The flowers only last a few days before the petals fall off and the ovary ripens into the characteristic round-bellied seed capsule. The capsule narrows at the top like a drawstring purse. When the seed is ripe the capsule begins to dry out thus lifting the top cover of the capsule and giving rise to little openings around the rim through which the seeds can be released. The seeds are numerous tiny gray to brown kidney-shaped speckles which are edible and yield a fine, high quality oil. The leaves, stem and capsule all contain a white milky juice, which extrudes as soon as the surface of any of these parts is broken. It becomes brown when dried and is commonly referred to as 'raw Opium'. Flowering time is between April and August.
Distribution: Poppies are common throughout Europe and Eurasia as wild escapes from cultivation. They often grow in corn fields and waste places where they get plenty of sun and well drained soil.
Status: In most countries it is illegal to cultivate Poppies without license, though in Europe it is commonly grown as an ornamental. Harvesting, however is strictly prohibited everywhere.
Parts used: Seeds, latex, leaves, petals
Constituents: Contains about 40 different alkaloids. The most prominent being morphine, Codeine, Thebaine, Papaverine and Noscapine
Magical Uses: Love magic and divination, prophetic dreams, incense for divination, potions in sex magic, Flying Ointment, prosperity charm, protection against demons and vampires, happiness and peace, invisibility
Medicinal Uses: Analgesic, narcotic, sedative, antispasmodic, anti-diarrheal, antitussive, diaphoretic, aphrodisiac
The dried latex rolled into pills in combination with other substances has long been valued as a highly effective painkiller. As a sedative it is used to bring sleep to agitated children and suffering patients. It has also been employed to calm hysterics and otherwise mentally or emotionally disturbed patients. Its anti-diarrheal properties still make it one of the most powerful agents for the treatment of colic and dysentery, whilst its anti-tussive action are highly valued as one of the most widely used ingredients in all kinds of cough remedies and is invaluable in treating persistent spasmodic coughs(Codeine- alkaloid of Opium). In the past it was much used for the treatment of tuberculosis. As an aphrodisiac it plays an important role in treating sexual problems such as impotency and premature ejaculation.
Caution: Opium, Morphine and Heroin are all highly addictive substances, besides which they are also highly illegal. Opium use can lead to constipation. This article is intended as an educational resource not as a guide to self-medication or to encourage illegal uses of drugs.
FOOTNOTES:
1) Poppy seed oil is much revered among gourmet chefs for its nutty in flavour and its resistance to the process of oxidation.
2) Sleep is often referred to as �little death�.
3) opion = milk juice=latex
4) Andromachos was the personal doctor of Nero
5) The Doctrine of Signatures refers to a symbolic way of understanding the inherent qualities of the natural world and its phenomena and interpreting these according to a system of symbolic likenesses and astrological resonances, e.g. the power of the Sun was revealed in golden yellow herbs, which accordingly should be useful as general tonics and strengthen the whole constitution. Some fits worked better than others. Indeed, to an observant mind it often does seem as if nature is trying to convey a message concealed within the appearances of its creations - though these may or may not fit traditional astrological symbolism.
6) These plantations and the whole Opium export business were soon taken over by the British government.
7) In 1803 the French Chemist F. Derosne was the first to isolate various active alkaloids of Poppy
Kay Morgenstern, 1997
Bibliography:
G. & M. Haerk�tter, Hexenfurz und Teufelsdreck, Eichborn Verlag, Frankfurt 1987.
R..E. Schultes & A. Hoffman, Pflanzen der G�tter, Hallwag, Bern 1987
Christian R�tsch, Lexikon der Zauberpflanzen, Adeva Verlag, Graz 1988
Christian R�tsch, Von den Wurzeln der Kultur, Sphinx Verlag, Basel, 1991,
Christian R�tsch, Pflanzen der Liebe, AT Verlag, Aarau, 1995
Christian R�tsch, R�ucherstoffe - Der Atem des Drachen, AT Verlag, Aarau, 1996
Richard Rudgley, Essential Substances, Kodansha Globe International, 1993
Bert Marco Schuldes, Psychoaktive Pflanzen, Nachtschatten Verlag (Solothurn) & MedienXperimente (Lohrbach),
Lise Manniche, An Ancient Egyptian Herbal, British Museum Press, 1993
T.F. Thiselton Dyer, The Folk-Lore of Plants,Llanerch Publishers, 1994
Esther Gallwitz, Kleiner Kr�uter Garten, Insel Verlag, 1992
Jaques Brosse, Magie der Pflanzen, Walter Verlag, 1992
Paul Huson, Mastering Herbalim, Stein and Day Publ. Scarborough, 1983
M. Grieves, A Modern Herbal, Penguin,1984
R.C.Wren, Potter's Encyclopaedia, C.W.Daniel, 1985
Richard Mabey, New Herbal, Penguin, 1991
Edith Hamilton, Mythology, Mentor, 1969
ALL CREDITS AND COPYWRITE TO LISTED AUTHORS! <
CORRECTNESS ASSUMED FORWARD NOTE
IF DISCREPANCY OR ERROR NOTICED IN TEXT THANKYOU!
silver gold markets
http://www.geocities.com/eagal14u//alphaREDUCTACEinhibitors.html-HEFAL YOURSELF!
