Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The chapter would give us a view about the different related studies regarding the leading death-causing diseases. This would also give us ideas about the impact of mortality rate caused by a disease.
HEALTH
Health is a state of physical, mental, and social well-being. It involves more than just the absence of disease. A truly healthy person not only feels good physically but also has a realistic outlook on life and gets along well with other people. Good health enables people to enjoy life and have the opportunity to achieve the goals they have set for themselves.
To achieve and maintain good health, people must have basic knowledge about the human body and how it functions. Only then can they determine what will or what will not help or damage their health. Therefore, learning about health should be a part of every person's education. Current knowledge about health, together with good living habits, can help almost everyone maintain good health and improve the quality of life.
Society as a whole benefits from people's good health just as individuals do. For that reason, many government and voluntary agencies strive to preserve and improve the health of all people. The World Health Organization (WHO), an agency of the United Nations, works to promote better health throughout the world.
All parts of the body must work together properly to maintain physical health. A person who is in good physical condition has the strength and energy to enjoy an active life and withstand the stresses of daily life. Proper nutrition, exercise, rest and sleep, cleanliness, and medical and dental care are all essential to healthy living.
Nutrition. A balanced diet provides all the food substances needed by the body for healthy growth and development. Nutritionists use the term nutrients for these substances and classify them into five main groups: (1) carbohydrates, (2) fats, (3) proteins, (4) vitamins, and (5) minerals. Water is also essential for life, but it is often considered separately from nutrients.
A balanced diet consists of a wide variety of foods. Fruit and vegetables provide important vitamins and minerals. Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, and nuts are rich sources of protein. Bread, cereals, and potatoes furnish carbohydrates in addition to vitamins and minerals.
Good nutrition also includes eating the proper amount of food each day. Overeating can lead to obesity (fatness). Excess weight puts extra strain on the heart and increases a person's chances of getting such diseases as diabetes and heart disease. Many people try to lose weight quickly and easily by following one of the many widely advertised fad diets. But these diets can be dangerous, especially if used over a long period of time. The safest way to lose weight is to consult a doctor and follow the reducing programme he or she prescribes. Most programmes combine moderate daily exercise with a balanced diet that contains a limited number of calories.
Exercise helps keep the body healthy and fit. Vigorous exercise strengthens muscles and improves the function of the circulatory and respiratory systems. Physical fitness benefits both physical and mental health. It enables the body to withstand stresses that otherwise could cause physical and emotional problems.
To achieve fitness, a person should start an exercise programme slowly and build it up gradually to a level that maintains a healthy heart and strong muscles. Daily exercise provides the greatest benefits, and so it is important to choose exercises that can be performed every day. Such popular activities as bicycling, jogging, and swimming, and even taking long, brisk walks, furnish the vigorous exercise necessary for fitness. Participating in golf, tennis, or some other sport only once or twice a week cannot develop and maintain fitness.
Rest
and sleep help overcome fatigue and restore energy to the body. Everyone needs rest and sleep, but the amount
required differs for each individual.
Most adults sleep from
Nearly everyone has trouble falling asleep occasionally. However, frequent insomnia (inability to sleep naturally) can indicate various physical or emotional disorders. Therefore, it is best to consult a doctor about any persistent sleep problem. Some people take sleeping pills to counteract insomnia, but such drugs should not be used without a doctor's prescription.
Rest and relaxation are as important as sleep. After strenuous work or exercise, a person may need a period of total rest. At other times, only relaxation or a change of pace is necessary. Any activity that differs from the normal routine of work or study can be relaxing. Pleasurable and relaxing activities help the body shed tension and remain robust. If rest and relaxation do not relieve fatigue and tension, the individual may have a physical or emotional problem.
Cleanliness controls the growth of bacteria and other germs that can cause disease. A daily bath or shower keeps the body free from dirt and odour. In addition, it helps prevent skin infections that may develop if bacteria grow and multiply on the skin. The hair should also be washed regularly.
Disease is a sickness of the body or the mind. A disease can be as mild as a sore throat or as serious as a heart attack. Diseases can strike almost any part of the body. They can also affect a person's mental and emotional health. This article discusses mainly diseases of the body.
Diseases have killed or disabled more people than all the wars ever fought. Each year, tens of millions of people die from diseases. Millions more survive serious diseases, such as cancer or strokes, but may be left permanently disabled. Countless others have mild diseases, such as colds or earaches, and recover.
Many diseases are caused by tiny living things, such as bacteria or viruses, that invade the body. These tiny objects are commonly called germs, but scientists refer to them as microorganisms. The diseases caused by these objects are called infectious diseases.
Infections are the most common type of disease. Many kinds of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms can invade the human body and cause disease. Disease-causing microorganisms are called pathogens. Pathogens take over some of the body's cells and tissues and use them for their own growth and reproduction. In the process, they damage or destroy the cells and tissues and so produce diseases.
Infectious diseases can be grouped according to the kind of pathogen that causes them. Bacteria and viruses are the most common pathogens. But fungi, protozoan, and worms also can cause infectious diseases.
Bacterial diseases. Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms. They rank among the most widespread of all living things. A single grain of soil may contain more than 100 million bacteria.
Most bacteria do not cause diseases. Many kinds of bacteria live harmlessly in the human mouth and intestines and on the skin. These "resident" bacteria seldom cause illnesses unless they move to an organ where they are not normally present. For example, bacteria that live harmlessly in the mouth can cause infections if they enter the middle ear. However, most bacterial diseases are caused by microorganisms that are not normally present in the body.
Most bacterial diseases result when bacteria multiply rapidly in living tissues, damaging or killing it. Boils and carbuncles result from the multiplication of bacteria in the skin. Bacterial pneumonia occurs when bacteria invade the lungs and multiply there. Many other serious diseases, including gonorrhoea and tuberculosis, result from bacterial multiplication.
Other bacteria cause disease by producing toxins (poisons). For example, tetanus, also called lockjaw, is a disease that begins after bacteria that normally live in soil enter the body through a wound. The bacteria produce a poison that affects muscles and nerves far away from the wound. Food poisoning results from eating foods that contain certain bacterial toxins. Botulism, a kind of food poisoning, involves one of the most deadly toxins known. Bacteria called Clostridium botulinum produce botulinus toxin.
Hospitals
Hospital is an institution that provides medical services for a community. The doctors, nurses, and other personnel of a hospital work to restore health to sick and injured people. They also try to prevent disease and maintain health throughout the community. In addition, a hospital serves as a centre for medical education and research.
Millions of people must, at some point in their lives, spend some time in hospital as inpatients. Millions of others will visit hospitals as outpatients. Outpatients receive treatment but do not stay in the hospital.
To
people living in most countries of the industrial world, a hospital is a clean
building or complex equipped with modern medical facilities where doctors and
nurses use up-to-date techniques to treat patients. But in a few developing countries, hospitals
may be little more than crude huts or tents, where doctors and nurses work with
limited drug supplies and medical equipment.
Even in the developing world, however, hospital provision is expanding
where financial resources allow. Each
year, more hospitals are built to meet the needs of a rising population. Experts usually measure the level of hospital
provision in a country in terms of the number of hospital beds it has available
for patients.
Hospitals vary quite widely in both the size of the institution and the kind of services provided. In most countries, hospitals form a vital part of an organized public health service.
At
the lowest level of this service some hospitals that are small rural
institutions serving a tiny local community.
In the
District or community general hospitals form the next level of hospital provision in most countries. These hospitals serve larger population centres, such as towns and the suburbs of major cities. Besides general medical provision, these hospitals provide a wide range of specialist facilities. In the past, general hospitals consisted of up to 2,000 beds. But in the late 1980's and early 1990's, some countries replaced these with smaller (300-500 bed) hospitals that co-ordinate their services with those of the community. These more modern hospitals work more efficiently because they are less expensive to run and easier to administer.
In many developed countries, the top level of hospital provision is supplied by specialist hospitals or teaching hospitals. These are hospitals associated with medical schools, providing practical training for medical students. Teaching hospitals offer the most highly specialized services, such as brain surgery or heart and chest surgery, and also support facilities for medical research. Local family doctors or doctors in district general hospitals refer patients to a teaching hospital for diagnosis (determining the nature of a disease) and special treatment, which may include an operation and specialized nursing care.
Within the usual hospital structure of most developed countries are special hospitals or units within general hospitals that cater for specific types of patient. A pediatric hospital or pediatric unit deals solely with children. A geriatric hospital or unit accommodates old people. Eye hospitals care for patients with sight difficulties. Acute hospitals and trauma units provide emergency treatment and care for badly injured or seriously ill patients. Maternity units help protect mothers and new-born babies from infection by keeping them apart from other patients. A premature baby unit gives specialized care to babies born too early.
In addition to special units, general hospitals consist of several basic units. Chief among these are the surgical unit for patients requiring surgery, and the medical unit, for patients who require treatment by drugs. Surgery makes many demands on hospital resources. Operating theatres may be isolated from the rest of the hospital to reduce the risk of infection. The theatre is maintained in as aseptic (germ-free) a state as possible.
An intensive care unit provides round-the-clock nursing and monitoring for patients who are seriously ill. An accident and emergency unit or casualty unit treats accident victims and people who suddenly fall ill. Casualty units also provide ordinary outpatient services.
Death
Death is the end of life. Every living thing eventually dies, but human beings are probably the only creatures that can imagine their own deaths.
Most people fear death and try to avoid thinking about it. However, people's awareness of death has been one of the chief forces in the development of civilization. Throughout history, people have continually sought new medical knowledge with which to delay death. Philosophers and religious leaders have tried to understand the meaning of death. Some scholars believe that much human progress results from people's efforts to overcome death and gain immortality through lasting achievements.
Medical Aspects of Death
Scientists recognize three types of death. These types are necrobiosis, necrosis, and somatic death.
Necrobiosis is the continual death and replacement of individual cells through life. Except for nerve cells, all the cells of an organism are constantly being replaced. For example, new skin cells form under the surface as the old ones die and flake off.
Necrosis is the death of tissues or even entire organs. During a heart attack, for example, a blood clot cuts off the circulation of the blood to part of the heart. The affected part dies, but the organism continues to live unless the damage has been severe.
Somatic death is the end of all life processes in an organism. A person whose heart and lungs stop working may be considered clinically dead, but somatic death may not yet have occurred. The individual cells of the body continue to live for several minutes. The person may be revived if the heart and lungs start working again and give the cells the oxygen they need. After about three minutes, the brain cells which are most sensitive to a lack of oxygen--begin to die. The person is soon dead beyond any possibility of revival. Gradually, other cells of the body also die. The last ones to perish are the bone, hair, and skin cells, which may continue to grow for several hours.
In countries where communicable diseases once ranked as the leading causes of death, cancer and cardiovascular diseases are the main causes of mortality of an individual, while infectious diseases are a leading cause of death which affected about one-fourth to a third of the estimated 54 million deaths worldwide (1998).
In the seven biggest killers worldwide,
tuberculosis, malaria, hepatitis and HIV/AIDS, continue to urge. HIV/AIDS and
tuberculosis are likely to account the cause of majority of death. According to
the study, in the year 2001-2003, HIV/AIDS accumulated the rate of 2.5 and a
number of 253 deaths on the
Communicable diseases are transmitted from one individual to another, also known as contagious diseases. Microorganisms such as protozoa, fungi, and virus cause it and bacteria that invade the body while infectious disease can be transmitted by direct or indirect contact or through the air. It is caused in the host with infection with the living and therefore replicating microorganisms such as animal parasite, bacteria, fungi or virus. It is said then, that the leading causes of death nowadays are caused by these kind of diseases.
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
is the classification used to code and classify mortality data from death
certificates. During the year 1979-1998 the
PNEUMONIA
Primarily, pneumonia is caused by the patient’s inhaling or aspirating a pathogen such as bacteria or a virus. Bacterial pneumonia, often caused by staphylococcus, streptococcus and klebsiella, usually occurs when the lungs’ defense mechanisms are impaired by such factors as suppressed cough reflex, decreased cilia action, decreased activity of phagocytic cells, and the accumulation of secretions. Viral pneumonia occurs when a virus attacks bronchiolar epithelial cells and causes interstitial inflammation and desquamation, which eventually spread to the alveoli. Aspiration pneumonia is caused by the patient’s inhaling foreign matter such as food or vomitus into the bronchi. Other factors associated with aspiration pneumonia include old age, impaired gag reflex, surgical procedures, debilitating diseases, and decreased level of consciousness.
Children and young adults up to
age 30 are at risk for several forms of viral pneumonia, including mycoplasa
pneumonia, adenovirus pneumonia, rubeola pneumonia, and respirator syncyial
virus pneumonia. Adults are at risk for varicella viral pneumonia. Majority of
pneumonia cases are found in older people because people over 40 years of age
are at greater risk to contract all forms of bacterial pneumonia with older
men, more susceptible to streptococcal bacterial pneumonia and klebsiella
bacterial pneumonia. (Sommers,2002 )
HYPERTENSION
Hypertension is the medical term for the disease commonly called high blood pressure. The normal blood pressure for a young adult is 120/80. High blood pressure is not only a serious condition by itself, but it is also the leading cause of heart attacks, strokes, and kidney failure.
Approximately two thirds of people over age 65 have systolic hypertension, usually related to underlying atherosclerosis and stress. Younger individuals may also be affected, depending on the number of risk factors present. Malignant hypertension affects men more often than women, with the average age oat at diagnosis being 40 years of age (Rothenberg,1991)
Neonatal Sepsis, potentially fatal disorder, gradually causes dyspnea along with chills and sudden fever. As dyspnea worsens, it ay be accompanied by Tachycardia, Tachypnea, restlessness, anxiety, decreased mental acuity and warm, flushed, dry skin late findings include hypertension, oliguria, cool clammy skin and rapid thready pulse. It is a bloodstream infection or poisoning occurring usually during the first week of life. It is caused by bacteria entering the blood by way of the skin, mucous membranes, nose, mouth or by the umbilicus.
RELATED STUDIES
According to the National Vital Statistics Report Volume 53, number 5, the ten leading causes of death in 2002 were 1. Diseases of the heart (Heart Disease) 2. Malignant neoplasms (cancer) 2. Cerebrovascular diseases (stroke) 4. Chronic Lower Respiratory Diseases 5.Accidents (unintentional injuries) 6. Diabetes mellitus 7. Influenza and Pneumonia 8. Alzheimer’s disease 9. Nephritis, Nephrotic syndrome and nephrosis (Kidney disease) and 10. Septicemia (Kochenek et al, 2002).
Front Cover Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Appendix Conceptual Framework Research Design