| Conclusion |
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Capitalism - Capitalism was
born from the Industrial Revolution.
Adam Smith is a capitalist. All of the ideas of Capitalism were written in
his book Wealth of Nations.
It is a social system based on the principles of individual rights.
Under capitalism the state is separated from economics and the
economics is under a system of laissez-faire.
The idea is that most of the production is privately owned, and
that the production is guided and income distributed largely through the
operation of markets. Unlike
earlier systems, capitalism used the excess of production over consumption
to enlarge productive capacity rather than investing it in economically
unproductive enterprises such as cathedrals.
Cash Nexus: - It is a mode of employment where ties between employers and employees are created through the payment of wages. Work relationships are depersonalized, becoming economic transactions subject to market forces. Each party concerned seeks to further his or her own financial interests without regard for the other.
-
this term was used by Karl Marx in The Communist Manifesto
(1848).
Chartism
- Chartism is a British
working-class movement for political reform.
It began in the early 19th century and was named after
the People’s Charter. The bill was first drafted by William Lovett in
1838 and it demanded reforms in the parliament; however, the parliament
refused to take action on three Chartist petitions presented to it and the
movement died down after 1848.
Communism - It is a theory advocating elimination of private property. It is a system in which goods are owned in common and are available to all as needed. It is a doctrine based on revolutionary Marxian socialism and Marxism-Leninism that was the official ideology of the USSR.
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E
Enclosure
Movement - The Enclosure
Movement refers to the division of communal lands in Europe into the
individually owned farm plots of modern times.
Before this movement, the farmland only belonged to the farmers
during the harvest. Before
and after this period, the land was used by the community for livestock
breeding and other purposes. The
Enclosure movement began in the 12th century and grew rapidly
from the 15th to 17th century. It slowed down around
the 19th century, the time of the Industrial Revolution.
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G
H
I
J
July Monarchy - After Charles X, an open supporter of the Ultras and absolute monarchy, was exiled, his cousin the Duke of Orleans became the new French king under a new constitution. His title was King Louis Philippe but he was known as the "bourgeois monarch," "citizen-king" and “King of French People.” His reign is called the July Monarchy. The revolutionary tricolour with its red, white and blue symbolizing liberty equality and fraternity was restored as the national flag. The constitutional reforms that followed also reflected the liberalism of the new regime. Laws censoring the press were abolished and the church and state were declared separate. The July Monarchy was neither a republic nor a democracy but a liberal oligarchy of property owners. It removed the political influence of clerical and ultra-royalist factions but failed to satisfy the political aspirations of radicals and democrats.
K
L
Liberalism
- Accepted the 18th century view that humans are rational
beings. It considered society
as the sum of the interests and needs of the individuals who composed it.
(Adam Smith, Bentham) The
role of the state was to protect the freedom of the individuals so that
all persons could rationally pursue their own happiness and self-interest.
Liberals assumed that the combined happiness of all individuals
would create the best society.
Luddism - Luddism was born during the Industrial Revolution by industrial workers. This term describes the distrust and fear of the inevitable changes brought about by new technologies. The industrial workers seek improved working conditions and the attention from their employers by attacking and breaking machines - thus, they were called the luddites. The original Luddites claimed to be led by Nedd Ludd, also known as "King Ludd". The original Luddite revolt occurred in 1811, in an action against the English textile factories that displaced craftsmen in favour of machines. Today's Luddites continue to raise moral and ethical arguments against the excesses of modern technology to the extent that our inventions and our technical systems have evolved to control us rather than to serve us.
M
Moral economy – The belief that the first fruits of the soil belong to the community. Farmers were expected to bring their produce to the village market and sell it at a fair price.
Multiplier Effect: - The multiplier effect occurs when primary employment increases and creates additional service jobs. This, in turn, brings in more people to fill service and support positions, which again increases the population and creates more jobs. This cycle continues until the market is saturated or declines.
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P
Peterloo
Massacre - In March 1819, Joseph Johnson, John Knight and James Wroe
formed
the Manchester Patriotic Union Society. All the leading radicals in
Manchester joined the organization. The main objective of this new
organization was to obtain parliamentary reform and during the summer of
1819 it was decided to invite Major Cartwright, Henry Orator Hunt and
Richard Carlile to speak at a public meeting in Manchester. Cartwright was
unable to attend but Hunt and Carlile agreed and the meeting was arranged
to take place at St. Peter's Field on 16th August.
The local magistrates were concerned that such a substantial gathering of
reformers might end in a riot. The magistrates therefore decided to
arrange for a large number of soldiers to be in Manchester on the day of
the meeting.
At about 11.00 a.m. on 16th August, 1819 William Hulton, the chairman, and
nine other magistrates met at Mr. Buxton's house in Mount Street that
overlooked St. Peter's Field. Although there was no trouble the
magistrates became concerned by the growing size of the crowd. Hulton came
to the conclusion that there were at least 50,000 people in St. Peter's
Field at midday. Hulton therefore took the decision to send Edward
Clayton, the Borough reeve and the special constables to clear a path
through the crowd. The 400 special constables were therefore ordered to
form two continuous lines between the hustings where the speeches were to
take place, and Mr. Buxton's house where the magistrates were staying.
The main speakers at
the meeting arrived at 1.20 p.m.
At 1.30 p.m. the magistrates came to the conclusion that "the town
was in great danger". William Hulton therefore decided to arrest
Henry Hunt and the other leaders of the demonstration. But this could not
be done without the help of the military. Hulton
then wrote two letters and sent them to the commander of the military
forces in Manchester and the commander of the Manchester & Salford Yeomanry.
Captain
Hugh Birley, who was positioned only a few yards away at Pickford's Yard,
was the first to receive the order to arrest the men. Local eyewitnesses
claimed that most of the sixty men who Birley led into St. Peter's Field
were drunk.
The Manchester & Salford Yeomanry entered St. Peter's Field along the
path cleared by the special constables. As the Yeomanry moved closer to
the hustings, members of the crowd began to link arms to stop them
arresting Henry Hunt and the other leaders. Others attempted to close the
pathway that had been created by the special constables. Some of the
Yeomanry now began to use their sabres to cut their way through the crowd.
When
Birley and his men reached the hustings they arrested Henry Hunt, John
Knight, Joseph Johnson, George Swift, John Saxton, John Tyas, John
Moorhouse and Robert Wild. As well as the speakers and the organizers of
the meeting, Captain Hugh Birley also arrested the newspaper reporters on
the hustings.
Lieutenant Colonel L'Estrange reported to William Hulton at 1.50 p.m. When
he asked Hulton what was happening he replied: "Good God, Sir, don't
you see they are attacking the Yeomanry? Disperse them." L'Estrange
now ordered Lieutenant Jolliffe and the 15th Hussars to rescue the
Manchester & Salford Yeomanry. By 2.00 p.m. the soldiers had cleared
most of the crowd from St. Peter's Field. In the process, eleven people
were killed and about 400, including 100 women, were wounded.
Poor
Law Amendment - It was an act in
1834. It was also called "An Act for
the Amendment and better Administration of the Laws relating to the Poor
in England and Wales." It is one of the most
significant pieces of social legislation in British history. At a stroke,
it swept away an accumulation of poor-laws going back half a millennium,
and replaced them with a national system for dealing with poverty and its
relief based around the Union workhouse. It was aimed to deter the
able-bodied but provide a refuge for the ailing and the helpless. It was
based on the belief that the deserving and the undeserving poor could be
distinguished by a simple test: anyone prepared to accept relief in the
repellent workhouse must be lacking the moral determination to survive
outside it.
The other guiding principle of the new regime was that of "less eligibility" namely that conditions in the workhouse should never be better than those of "an independent labourer of the lowest class".
Workhouses were intended to replace all other forms of relief, e.g. by stimulating thrifty habits to provide for sickness, bereavement and old age. It was intended that outdoor relief (payments in money or goods to those outside the workhouse) would end within two years. In fact this was very much wishful thinking and the large bulk of poor law expenditure continued to be on outdoor relief, averaging around 78% in the 1840s.
You can read the full text of the 1834 Act at http://users.ox.ac.uk/~peter/workhouse/poorlaws/1834intro.html
Proletariat - The proletariat is a class in society, which lives entirely from the sale of its labour and does not draw profit from any kind of capital. Their sole existence depends on the demand for labor hence, also on the changing state of business and on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century.
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R
Romanticism - The Romanticism Movement is a literary, musical and philosophical movement that began in the 18th century and lasted until the mid 19th century. It focused and stressed on the individual, the imaginary and the natural. It promoted the idea of emotions over reason and senses over intellect.
S
Socialism: - The socialist doctrine demands state ownership and control of the fundamental means of production and distribution of wealth. It is to be achieved by reconstruction of the existing capitalist or other political system of a country through peaceful, democratic, and parliamentary means. Socialism advocates nationalization of natural resources, basic industries, banking and credit facilities, public utilities, and state ownership of corporations. It places special emphasis on the nationalization of monopolized branches of industry and trade, viewing monopolies as harmful to the public welfare.
T
Mr. Turner: Teacher and philosopher actively teaching at Lisgar Collegiate Institute in Ottawa, Canada. A fan of the Toronto Maple Leafs.
U
Utopian Socialists: - They were largely the product of middle-class intellectuals who criticized the capitalist system of private ownership. They had keen interests in bringing well-being to the entire population (social-equality).
The three influential utopian socialists were:
Count Henri de Saint-Simon:
- Lived from 1760-1825, a French aristocrat and an eccentric visionary. He had a keen interest in scientific discoveries and was confident that technological innovations would bring about greater material abundance.
- His contribution lay in the realization that political liberation was incomplete without social change, and in his vision technological innovation and social planning would make life more equitable and fulfilling.
Robert Owen:
-
Lived from 1771-1858.
- He believed that the emphasis of industrial entrepreneurs on individualism and competition, including the effort to maximize profit by demanding optimum productivity for the lowest possible wage, was harmful to the individual and destructive of the fabric of society.
- He feared the degradation of working class and the rise of sharp class antagonisms, which would result in destructive warfare between the classes.
- He believed in gradual reform, the power of education, and union and model communities.
Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon
- Lived from 1809-1865, He was an influential French radical.
- He addressed the question of the source of violence and repression in society. He claimed that the responsibility for violence and crime laid with governments, and not with individuals.
- He believed that through laws and police, the state forced humans to live in an unnatural condition of inequality and oppression, and worst of all was in the ownership of property.
- His famous pamphlet of 1840 asked the question What is property?, and the answer was "All property is theft."
- He wanted to get rid of private property and create conditions of social equality.
- Unlike many others of his age, Proudhon distrusted the state, and his view of the repressive character of government made him one of the founders of anarchism.
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