Trends in today’s work world have contributed to a significant rise in the use of play and other interactive, experiential learning in improving adult performance. The rise of work teams has encouraged the development of training in teams. Corporations are finding that playful approaches to solving problems often produce creative and powerful solutions. Diverse workplaces are discovering a need to increase understanding and communication between cultural groups through experiential activities. And finally, with the advent of computer technology, it has become easier to design and deliver interactive training (Thiagarajan, 1996.) This paper will explore the use of games and simulations in helping adults to learn new knowledge, skills, and abilities.

While simulations and games are slightly varying instructional techniques, they share the same characteristic of learning through interactive play. Robert E. Horn, in The Guide to Simulations/Games for Education and Training defines games and simulations in this way:

"Game: an activity carried out by individuals who may cooperate or compete in seeking to achieve specific objectives and who follow particular rules and operate within particular constraints.

Simulation: a method of representing reality, the essence of the physical or social system interaction. Simulations attempt to replicate essential aspects of reality so it may be better understood and/or controlled" (Horn, 1977, p. 6.)

Specifically, instructional games are designed to elicit specific learning outcomes. Several key components combine to define an exercise as a game. First, games set the stage for a mock world with specific rules that apply and guide participants. Games also usually involve some sort of paraphernalia that allow the teams or individuals to use them as prescribed by the rules to defeat another team or person (Gredler, 1994.) Third, games involve conflict. Usually teams are competing against one another, or are working together to defeat a common barrier. Since instructional games teach through play, there is usually some aspect of playfulness that allows participants to not take the game too seriously. Effective instructional games have a clear ending established by a specific occurrence or set of rules. A final characteristic of instructional games is that they may be used with many different learning objectives to help learners improve performance in specific areas (Thiagarajan, 1996.)

Instructional simulations share the characteristic of being designed to gain specific learner outcomes, but also correspond aspects of a game with reality, or the instructor’s model of reality. Simulations are useful in meeting a variety of objectives to improve human performance and are especially effective in helping learners master complex concepts (Thiagarajan, 1998.) Two key types of simulations include tactical-decision simulations, in which the learner must use his/her skills to interpret information and create a solution to the presented problem, and social-process simulations, in which the primary interactions take place between members of a group attempting to solve a specific social or political problem (Gredler, 1994.)

As is the case with nearly any instructional technique, there is a useful time and place in performance-based training to utilize games and simulations and times when such a decision is unwise or ineffective. A major advantage in using games and simulations is that when time is constrained, training may still take place effectively (Thiagarajan, 1998.) Both techniques compress time and space and allow learners to experience lengthy real-life events in short spans of training time.

When the self-esteem of learners is low or fragile, games and simulations may be used to reinforce a new skill. While, on the job, mistakes may be penalized or reprimanded, in a game or simulation, results of mistakes are not long lasting and have no repercussions. Such a quality allows learners to practice skills safely and without harm to ego (Campbell, 1996.)

Arguably the greatest appeal of games and simulations as training techniques is their interactivity. In Learning through Simulations, author Donald Thatcher says, "Fundamental to all learning is some kind of active experience. The learner has to be active and to be involved with the material or skill to be learned in some kind of experience" (Thatcher, p. 265.) The opportunity for the participant to learn by doing and have fun doing it makes games and simulations a favored method of instruction.

While with many exercises and activities in performance-based training assessment must come at the end of a training sequence, games and simulations provide constant feedback and self-evaluation throughout the course of the event. This allows learner’s to adjust their behavior or newly acquired skill until desirable results are met immediately and during the training session. Such constant reinforcement is of obvious benefit to the individual or group.

Games and simulations are quite effective in promoting transfer of training, the fundamental goal of performance-based training. Since discussion and practice is immediate rather than an abstract concept presented in a generalized lecture, instructors of games and simulations may see first hand how learners will handle specific situations or problems.

Games and simulations, while wonderfully diverse and flexible, are not always the preferred choice in every training situation. A major disadvantage of both can be their length. While a strength in one respect, there is speculation that a learner can actually glean useful information from a short segment of a game or simulation. If a skill is particularly critical, a game or simulation might be appropriate for practice, but not be used in isolation of other reinforcing activities.

A key characteristic of games and simulations is a lack of direct involvement by the instructor or facilitator. In most cases, participants are encouraged to manage the flow of the game or simulation. If an instructor or facilitator is not experienced or skilled in the facilitation of such activities, the purpose of the game may be lost and necessart closure may not be achieved (Campbell, 1996.)

Games and simulations may be design effectively using the ISD model. As a first step, the instructional context should be determined. An instructor must determine when and where the game or simulation will be used in training and how it will be conducted (Thiagarajan, 1996.)

Next, an objective should be written for the game or simulation. An instructor should have a clear purpose for the game and the subsequent objective should be specific, not too complex and complete in order to evaluate and manage time constraints effectively (Campbell, 1996.)

How learners will be involved must be determined early on. Games and simulations should make use of each participant in a group and leave no one out. A model should be determined to outline exactly the roles participants will play and analyze possible outcomes of such interaction (Thiagarajan, 1996.)

The game or simulation type should be decided and supporting paraphernalia assembled. Rules should be outlined and post-exercise analysis should be planned. Once the game or simulation is carried out in the classroom, the activity should be evaluated and "tweaked" if necessary to ensure the activity served to meet its objective effectively and in a timely manner (Campbell, 1996.)

Instructors should be aware of the fact that the words "game" and "simulation" often bring about negative reactions in learners. The connotation associated with such words may be negative and imply a trite or irrelevant activity. Alternative phrases may be beneficial, particularly when faced with an older group of learners.

The activity should be introduced clearly, but briefly, so that participants may begin interacting as soon as possible. An instructor or facilitator should ensure that the rules are clear, that all participants understand them, and that participants engage in the activity according to the rules.

During the activity, the instructor or facilitator should attempt to maintain a balance between controlling the activity and allowing the participants to experience the game or simulation naturally. A skilled games and simulations instructor monitors performance of participants in the activity and establishes an equilibrium between play and intense competition. He/she guides the group’s focus and ensures that the group depends on one another appropriately and on him/her as necessary.

One of the most critical components of games and simulations is the debriefing period following the activity. The instructor/facilitator should be prepared with a list of questions to guide participants in discovering what they have learned through the process. It is through this debriefing session that the experience of the game or simulation is "examined, discussed, and turned into learning" (Thatcher, 1990, p. 270.) During this period, the facilitator/instructor should help learners identify the impact of the experience on each individual. Questions should be raised to guide learners in noticing and understanding the processes that were developed in the game or simulation. Key facts, principles, and concepts should e clarified and participant emotion should be expressed and analyzed. The identification and analysis of all of these elements "is the process by which all the participants begin to explore the complexity of the system in which they were participants" (Thatcher, 1990, p. 270.)

Games and simulations clearly have a place in performance-based training. They may be one of the most effective ways of allowing participants to practice a knowledge, skill, or attitude in as realistic a setting as possible and identifying how each individual will implement the new learning. Interactivity is the name of the game in active training, and this type of activity provides it many times over. Games and simulations "encourage participants to confront their own attitudes and values� can also help participants grasp the total course content..and can help test the behavioral style and performance of participants" (Silberman, 1998, p. 127, 128.) Useful instructional tools in performance-based training, games and simulations are a viable training alternative.

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Gredler, M. (1992). Designing and Evaluating Games and Simulations: A Process Approach. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.

Horn, R. (Ed.). (1977). The Guide to Simulations/Games for Education and Training. Cranford, NJ: Didactic Systems, Inc.

Reiber, L. (1996). Seriously Considering Play: Designing Interactive Learning Environments Based on the Blending of Microworlds, Simulations, and Games. Education and Training Resource & Development, 44, 42-58.

Silberman, M. (1998). Active Training: A Handbook of Techniques, Designs, Case Examples, and Tips. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Thatcher, D. (1990, September). Promoting Learning Through Games and Simulations. Simulation & Gaming, 262-273.

Thiagarajan, S. (1996). Instructional Games, Simulations, and Role-Plays. In Robert L. Craig (Ed.), The ASTD Training & Development Handbook. (pp. 517-533). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Thiagarajan, S. (1998, September - October). The Myths and Realities of Simulations in Performance Technology. Educational Technology, 35-41.