Kashmir Lakes

LAKES OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR

Kashmir is a land of lakes and rivers. The river Jhelum (ancient name, Vitasta- transformed into Veth, in Kashmiri parlance) meanders through the valley in artistic Zigzags, which have furnished the motifs to the deft Kashmiri artisans. Nestled among hills in the north-east of the valley is the Wular (20 km by 8 km), the largest fresh-water lake in India. The Dal lake, well known for the Mughal gardens flanking it, in the vicinity of Srinagar, is about 6 km long and about 3 km broad. Other well-known lakes are the Manasbal (the deepest in Kashmir), the Kaunsar Nag (3,901.44 m), and the Gangabal and other mountain tarns, at an elevation of over 3,300 m. In the Lidder valley, there are huge glaciers like Kolahai which is about 8 km long and comes down as low as 3,300 m. The mountains and lakes are complemented by luxuriant orchards dotted with majestic chinar trees, providing so many breathtaking spectacles.

Profile

Forests, Lakes and Mountains

This land is a happy combination of the mighty splendor of mountains, of lovely glades and forests. The river Jhelum meanders its steady course through corn-fields into the heart of the Srinagar city and, onwards, till it rushes headlong through the frowning gorges, and dashing against boulders joins the Arabian Sea through the plains of Punjab. The onlooker will find nature wild and vibrant wherever he may go in the country. The mountains lend unique charm to the land and in this aspect of its natural beauty, Kashmir even excels the much-adored Switzerland. To a traveler hailing from the plains or other parts of India and the world, familiar with the routes leading into Kashmir, the whole sweep of towering ranges opens up before his eyes when he steps up the Pir Panchal whose peaks rise over 15,000 feet on the South-West of the country. The natural surroundings of Kashmir unfold themselves on the journey both through the Banihal and the Jhelum Valley roads. Here he observes a sharp change of scene.

The imposing Num Peak overlooking the Suru Valley.

Pangong-Tso, the largest brackish lake in Asia.
The freshness and the peaceful calm of the atmosphere on these snow-peaked ranges as against the arid heat, din and fatigue of the Sun-baked plains of India, act as a tonic to his body and fill his mind with a feeling of pleasant contrasts. This is the first glimpse the sun-tanned visitor has of the glamour of Kashmir, which he had often heard, sung in prose as well as verse. In fact, no other part of the country offers such a lovely sight.

On the Panchal range, there are a few remarkable peaks viz., the three peaks round the Konsar Nag (12, 800 ft.), Tratakoti (15,524 ft), the highest on this range, and Romesh thong also named as Sun-set peak by Dr. Arthur Neve when he climbed it. A feature of this mountain range is the luxuriant growth of wild flowers. Also an alpine plant called Saussurea Sacra grows here in abundance
Mountain of Kashmir

The Likir monastery situated on hilltop.
From Pir Panchal range further North, the open grassy highlands of Tosa Maidan (14,000 ft. high) catch the eye. The Pastures of this vast highland are the regular haunts of the cheerful, homely shepherds who bring up their flocks for grazing. Further Northwest is the Kazi Nag range – the home of the Markhor. It stands 12,125 feet high and is snow-covered with slopes coated with dense forests. The towering peak of Nanga Parbat (26, 620 ft. high) stands as a sentinel guarding, as it were, the Valley on this side. It is an imposing sight. Far away from here are seen the Karakoram ranges also known as Mustagh, with some of its peaks rising over 25,000 ft and among them the World-famous K2 (over 28,000 ft.), the second highest in the world, stands out boldly in its mountain glory. To the east of the valley stands the noble, snow-clad peak of Haramukh (16,903 ft.) overlooking it.
The famous Gangabal lake of Haramukh is regarded as sacred by Kashmiri Hindus to the same extent as Haridwar is held in India. Here also Saussurea Sacra grows in plenty. Another remarkable peak in the east seen all over the city is Mahadev (13,000 ft.). in Summer pilgrims climb this peak. On the lower sides of this mountain, one comes across a herb Macrotomia Benthami in wild profusion. This herb is well known as Kah zaban or Gaw Zaban. It is frequently prescribed by the local physicians to ailing persons.

On the South of the Valley, the peaks of Amar Nath and Kolahoi springing from the same massif are found prominent. Amar Nath stands 17, 321 feet high and Kolahoi 17,800 feet.
Kolahoi is also known as Gwash Brari. At dawn the radiant rays of the sun fall on this cone-like peak and the lurid glare of the dazzling snows is a sight. Here and there on this range, one is attracted by wild graceful flowers, wild roses, poppies, anemones and hosts of other unknown floral

Shikaras on Dal Lake, Srinagar.

Sani, one of the older monastic establishments of Central Zanskar. varieties. Shri Amar Nath is a famous ancient shrine.
It is interesting to observe the colors these ranges richly display at certain hours of the day. These are peculiar to Kashmir mountains and are aptly described by Sir Walter Lawrence thus:

"It would be difficult to describe the colors which are seen on the Kashmir mountains. In early morning they are often a delicate semi-transparent violet relieved against a saffron sky, and with light vapor clinging round their crests. Then the rising Sun deepens the shadows, and produces sharp outlines and strong passages of purple and indigo in the deep ravines. Later on, it is nearly all blue and lavender, with white snow peaks and ridges under a vertical sun, and as the afternoon wears on, these become richer violet and pale bronze, gradually changing to rose and pink with, yellow or orange snow, till the last rays of the sun have gone, leaving the mountains dyed a ruddy crimson with the snows showing a pale creamy by contrast."

For its fresh-water lakes and tarns, Kashmir is known all the world over. Those lying in the valley against the charming mountain background are : the Wular Lake, the Dal Lake and the Manasbal lake. The Wular is the largest fresh-water lake in India and according to some, perhaps in Asia too. It is 121 miles long and 5 miles broad. It lies to the north-cast of the valley with mountains overlooking it. The Dal Lake lies on the suburbs of Srinagar in the east. It is at the foot of the mountain range. The lake is 4 miles long and 11 miles broad. Against
Shikaras on Dal Lake, Srinagar.

Sceneic View
the mountain background which is reflected in its calm expanse and enclosed by trees the lake looks superb. In summer, it is a paradise for visitors who glide over its waters in shikaras and houseboats. The Manasbal lake is the deepest lake in the country. Its greenish-blue waters are wondrous and beautiful.
Besides these lakes, which are fed by the melting snows from the mountains, there are hosts of mountain tarns form-glared by the glacial action and other phenomenal

activities of range nature. There are several glaciers on Haramoukh. On the South side they only descend to about 13,500 ft., but alter the North 1,500 ft lower. They are fed by the large snow fields on the summit, which are of great thickness. The snow cliffs on the middle peak show a vertical thickness of nearly 200 feet. In there seen all the surrounding valleys. There are lakelets varying in size from mere ponds to sheets of water a mile or so in length and quarter a mile broad., most of these occur at a height of 11,500 feet. There can be no doubt that they are all due in some way to glacial action , and that they are not of very remote age. Tydall points out that a glacier 900 feet deep would produce a vertical pressure of 486, 000 lbs. upon every square inch of its bed. But the small glacier on the shoulders gone, of such mountains as Haramoukh or Tutakuthi
A view evening view of Dal Lake

Coming down from Khardungla to Leh, the highest motorable road in the world (18,380 ft.)
would not exceed 200 feet in thickness, and would not be capable of excavating hard rocks beneath. So the numerous tarns and lakes may be own regarded as due chiefly to the formation of embankments across line of drainage. Sometimes such embankments may have been caused by the deposit of avalanche debris from a slideslope or by the advance of a side glacier with its lateral moraines. The lakes and lakelets found in upper valleys around Haramukh mountain are Gangabal, Lool Gool and Sarbal. They are at

an elevation of nearly12,000 feet above sea level. The shimmering waters lend glory to the Gangabal Lake, which stands at an elevation of 11,800 feet. To the South cast of the Pir Panchal range lies the lake Konsar Nag (12,800 feet) surrounded by three peaks. Its is fed by glaciers. It is said to be a source of the Jhelum. In the spring and summer, the water is some 40-ft higher than in winter. In the spring, its surface is said to be covered with icebergs, which are driven about by the wind.
An aerial view of Himalayas en route Ladakh.

The Tso-moriri lake. A nestling heaven for rare bird species. In the Liddar Valley, large glaciers are observed. On the mountain range of this Valley, the glaciers are found in Kolahoi. According to Dr. Neve " one glacier is about five miles in length and comes down as low as 11,000 feet" From here to the cast on the way to Amar Nath cave lies the famous Shesh Nag at an elevation of 14,000 feet. Glaciers are prominent in this area.
Coming into the Valley proper, we find the frozen lake of Alapathar or Apharwat, well over Khilanmarg. Flowers of rainbow colors are found in wild profusion here. The mountain tarn stands at the height of about 12,500 feet. It is said to be 500 yards long and 150 yards wide. The surroundings are austere and wild. It is popular haunt of tourists.

The nearest tarn to the city is that of Harwan on the slopes of Mahadev Mountain about a mile and a half further away from the Moghul garden –Shalimar. The source of its fresh water is Tarsar, a lake on the Amar Nath Mountain. Harwan looks beautiful in its sylvan surroundings. This tarn is the chief source of water supply to the city.

Besides the above enumerated lakes and lakelets, there are scores of tarns and glaciers found in the mountain ranges around the Gurais valley, Ladakh and Karakorams.

Kashmir is rich in forests. A variety of spruce, stately trees some of which are towering masses, grow in them such as Blue Pine, silver Fir, Himalayan spruce, Birch, Maple, Beech, Hazel, wild Oak. Almost all the mountains are coated with dense forests, which, besides lending charm and healthful fragrance to the atmosphere,

The grand confluence of Zanskar and the Indus river at Nimoo village

Phugthal, the most spectacular monastic foundation Zanskar Valley.
are a great factor of revenue to the country. The best varieties of pine and Deodar are found in the dense forests of Kishtwar and Bhaderwah. The Lolab valley too is thick with them. These forests are regular haunt of lovers of sports. Ibex, Snow Leopard, Musk Deer, Wolves, red Bear, Markhor, Backbear, Barasingha etc can be found in these forests. Ibex is a wild goat with very long horns. Snow leopards are found in high forests.
The country also holds a variety of winged game, such as duck, goose, chakor, monal pheasant, Patridge and Snipe. These are found in low forests, in swamps and on banks of the lakes. Kashmir is pre- eminently the land of forests which stately among othet things are the mainstay of its economy. These are thus guarded against erosion and other losses so as to yield Maple, more and more income. It was not until 1891 that a separate forest department was formed under Mr. MacDonell – first conservative of forests. He organized the department, marked out the forest areas and made a plan for the control of felling of forests. Export began to increase until timber become a major state industry. By 1924 it had grown to

such proportions that the forest department had to be reorganized and a uniform system of working was introduced in the Lolab area and later extended to the other forest ranges.
Belladonna grows well among the firs, and its roots and leaves which are used in pharmaceutical processes yield about 500 maunds a year, the price being between Rs 150 and Rs200 a maund. The Drug Research Laboratory makes considerable use of Bella Donna. The scattered wild growth of this plant is being framed out on a

Scenic View

Winter scene in the Suru Valley.
larger scale at Tangmarg with considerable success.
The blue pine is one of the most useful trees. Its wood makes excellent charcoal, its resin is used for medicinal purposes, and in the mountain villages pine chips are used as lights and torches.

The silver fur has durable wood, free from knots and consequently easy to work. This tree grows to great size, reaching in some cases to one hundred and fifty feet in length and sixteen feet in girth.

The elm is a dine tree and is used for ploughs and buildings. The young shoots are fed to the buffaloes Boatmen like the ash tree for the paddles it produces, and walnut is priced for the making of furniture and spinning, wheels, but its growth and has not yet been fully developed.

Jammu & Kashmir possesses vast forests stretching from the lower valleys high up into mountain passes right to the edge of massive glaciers. Forests in Jammu & Kashmir vary according to both altitude and climatic conditions. They range from the tropical deciduous forests in the foothills of Muzafarabad and Jammu, to temperate forests in the middle altitudes of the Kashmir Valley. Higher up, in Gilgit, Baltistan, Ladakh, and the higher areas of the Kashmir Valley coniferous, sub-alpine, and alpine forests spring up. These eventually give way to alpine grasslands and high altitude meadows just below the towering mountains and glaciers. They are followed by scrublands which lead up to the permanent snowline. Jammu & Kashmir's forests include a wide variety of species including maple (the famous "chinar" tree of the Kashmir valley), evergreens, rose chestnut, alder, pine, laurel, sal, oak, magnolia, cedar, birch, hazel, spruce, juniper, rhododendron. These forests provide a perfect habitat for the wildlife of Jammu & Kashmir and are a vital component of Jammu & Kashmir's Eco-system. This upcoming our Report, hopefully the first in a series of reports on deforestation, shows that in the last 50 years, deforestation has accelerated as a result of poor government control (and in some cases corruption), lack of local awareness, and military conflict. Sustained deforestation has begun to have a severe effect on the entire environment of Jammu & Kashmir. In both Pakistan and India-administered Jammu & Kashmir, the cutting down of old growth alpine forests has occurred at an alarming rate with the full knowledge of both administering governments. Forests and timber are sold off by the governments in questionable deals to logging companies. In India-administered Jammu & Kashmir, whole forests have been felled illegally as a result of military crackdown on resistance groups and also the corruption of the forestry department. In Pakistan- administered Jammu & Kashmir, there are cases of individual army officers treating their posts and soldiers under their responsibility as personal logging companies. In the past, entire forests were cleared and sold at profit to the individual officer. Cases such as these underscore the need to develop effective measures safeguarding Jammu & Kashmir's forests and other natural resources. Logging companies carve roads into the area, strip the land of much of the old growth forest and move on, leaving bare hillsides exposed to the heavy rainfall common to the area. The rain waters rush down the hills, covered only by loose soil, and erosion causes this soil and silt to flow into the rivers and lakes. Deforestation and the resulting loss of habitat is driving a number of endangered species to extinction. In order to save the environment of Jammu & Kashmir, rigid conservation and preservation of the forests are vital. The our Report concludes with suggestions on how to carry this out. In addition, the our Report takes as a case study the recently developed threat to the old-growth forests of the majestic Fairytale Meadows located below the towering Nanga Parbat (8,125 meters). It is hoped that viable solutions might be reached before Fairytale Meadows meets a similar fate as other alpine forests in Jammu & Kashmir. Fairytale Meadow is located in a valley on the North face of Nanga Parbat. Streams trickle down through the meadows amidst wild flowers; the forests of fir, dwarf pine, and silver birch standing peacefully alongside the Nanga Parbat glacier. A multitude of rare species of plants and animals flourish in the meadow and forest. For decades, this hidden paradise was only accessible to the sturdiest of trekkers. But in the last few years, since 1994, a jeep track and a three mile hike has brought an increasing number of tourists. The jeep track was financed by the "Shangri La" Pakistani hotel chain which was started by the same Pakistani military officer who cleared forests in other areas of Jammu & Kashmir. This jeep track has now made logging possible in the Fairytale Meadow. Although cutting of trees has been minimal so far, unless measures are adopted to protect Fairytale Meadow it is likely that cutting will accelerate. The our Report recommends that Fairytale Meadows and similar sites in Jammu & Kashmir be declared as environmental conservation sites making them illegal to log. But the our Report concludes with a recognition of the importance of developing an indigenous environmental movement to safeguard the forests and other natural treasures of Jammu & Kashmir. Report Brief: The lakes of Jammu & Kashmir have been renowned for centuries for their serene and pristine beauty. Most of the lakes of Jammu & Kashmir are remnants of ancient oxbows created by numerous rivers as they meandered within the valleys. Having a complex and vibrant Eco-system, the lakes also became the center of life for the inhabitants of the state. These lakes and the other waterways of Kashmir have had a profound influence on the people. A balance and interdependence between man and nature developed; as a result, a unique culture emerged on the banks of these lakes surrounded and protected by the Himalayan Mountains on all sides. In Srinagar (Indian-controlled J&K), in the Dal Lake, an entire community which lives on wooden houseboats and depends upon the lake for sustenance emerged.These hospitable boat people of Kashmir trace their descent from Noah. Entire families live on boats, clinging proudly to their traditional culture and accepting a way of life that was inherited from their ancestors. In Ladakh (Indian-controlled J&K), a small community of nomads still herds yak along the shores of the giant Pangong Tso lake. In the northern part of the state, in Baltistan (Pakistan-controlled J&K), a series of high altitude lakes exists in the high mountain valleys above Skardu. Jammu & Kashmir abounds with such natural treasures.
But with deforestation, increasing tourism to the region, and steady urban growth along the shores of some of the lakes, the centuries-old balance between man and nature has been disrupted and desperately needs to be restored.

Deforestation which is rampant in both Pakistan and Indian-administered Jammu & Kashmir and the erosion of top soil that it has caused is having a devastating effect on the rivers and lakes. The silt and soil being washed off of the barren mountainsides is rapidly transforming the Himalayan water Ecosystem while hastening the shrinkage of the larger lakes.

The once-magnificent Dal lake, for example, has startlingly shrunk in size. Compared to 1907 records, the lake has decreased 50 percent in volume, from 22 to 11 square kilometers. In the intervening years, the lake has changed in other ways as well. Today, Dal lake has become a clear-cut example of environmental degradation in a Himalayan lake Eco-system. The process known as Eutrophication has begun to set in. Eutrophication results when the lake waters become artificially enriched with nutrients, causing abnormal plant growth. Runoff of chemical fertilizers from the vast drainage basin around the lake, sewage and other oxygen demanding wastes, which bring in 15 tons of phosphorous and 300 tons of nitrogen every year combine to place the lake's internal life processes under severe stress. Oxygen levels fall, the fish die out and the lake loses its aesthetic appeal. Decaying organic matter produces disagreeable odors and unsightly green scum of algae and weed infested waterways. Although the Dal has not reached such an advanced level of eutrophication, the process has begun to set in. Tourism has added increased pressure on the delicate environment of the Dal. For instance, the number of house-boats surrounding the Dal Lake in Kashmir has grown to 1400 from 400 in 1975. If current trends continue, the Dal Lake will be destroyed within 80 years.

In addition to an examination of cases such as the Dal Lake, the upcoming our report presents other concerns regarding increasing tourism in Jammu & Kashmir ( in India and Pakistan administered Kashmir). For example, Pangong Tso in Ladakh was opened to tourism in 1994 which has generated fears that a similar negative impact will occur as has been observed in other Himalayan regions such as in Nepal. The upcoming report concludes with a series of suggested solutions for the safe-guarding of Jammu & Kashmir's lakes and waterways including possibilities for Eco-tourism and environmentally sound urban planning.

It is hoped that this upcoming report and others will bring about awareness in the administering governments and amongst the inhabitants of Jammu & Kashmir. And with this awareness, a hope that the present environmental threat to Jammu & Kashmir's lakes can be averted.

COLDWATER FISH AND FISHERIES IN THE INDIAN HIMALAYAS:
LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

Lakes in Kashmir Valley (state of Jammu and Kashmir), situated at an altitude of 1537 to 1587 m, and Gobindsagar and Pong reservoirs (altitude 560 and 436 m, respectively) at the foot of the Himalayas in the state of Himachal Pradesh, are the major coldwater fishing water bodies in the Himalayas. In both types of water bodies there is a commercial and a subsistence fishery, based on exotic and indigenous fish species. The large floodplain lakes Wular and Dal in Kashmir Valley have an average annual fish yield of 16.5 kg ha-1 and 21 kg ha-1 respectively. Gobindsagar Reservoir, with 60.2 kg ha-1 in 1996-97, has the highest yield of all Indian reservoirs. Its catches are highly dominated by the exotic silver carp, but the indigenous mahseer (Tor putitora) is still a common fish. The Kumaon lakes (altitude 1220-1937 m) in the state of Uttar Pradesh are small in size, with their yields ranging from 0.7 to 9.3 kg ha-1, and the major fish species being the introduced Indian major carps, common carp, and indigenous mahseers. Only some glacial lakes (altitude 3200-3819 m) of Kashmir contain fish, such as brown trout and the endemic schizothoracine Diptychus maculatus. Licence fishing for trout is allowed. The floodplain lakes in Kashmir Valley are rapidly ageing, with their water area being reduced by encroachment of agriculture on lake margins and by a massive aquatic plant growth, which is enhanced by pollution from the surrounding land.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Himalayas are the main watersheds in the Indo-Gangetic region, having numerous rivers, streams, lakes and reservoirs. The total number of lakes and their area is not fully known. Until recently, most of our knowledge on fish and fisheries in Himalayan lakes was limited to those located in the lower altitudes.

The retreat of glaciers resulted in the creation of many lakes in Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim, while landslides and tectonic movements caused the formation of other lakes. Lakes are present at high altitude in the Great Himalaya and Trans-Himalaya, with the highest lake situated at 5297 m a.s.l. Jana (1998) lists 13 lakes situated from 3400 m to
5297 m, some of them being brackish or saline. Freshwater lakes in Kashmir Valley are believed to have originated as oxbow lakes of the Jhelum River.

Large lakes, the largest 15,300 ha in surface area, are located at middle altitude (1537 to 1587 m) in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. Kumaon lakes in Uttar Pradesh (1237 to 1930 m), all located within a radius of 25 km of the town Nainital, are much smaller, with the largest only 72 ha. All mid-altitude lakes contain fish. In Himachal Pradesh coldwater lakes are situated between 1306 and 4815 m. A list of the major Himalayan lakes of India, giving their altitudes and overall water quality, is presented as Table 1.

2. KASHMIR VALLEY FLOODPLAIN LAKES
The largest floodplain lakes in the Kashmir Valley are Wular, Dal and Manasbal (Fig. 1), all situated at 34oN latitude. Rains are frequent during winter and spring, in late December-February. The precipitation in winter is mainly in the form of snow. These lakes are shallow, with the mean depth for all three ranging from 0.6 to 3.0 m, and the maximum from 5.8 to 13 m (Table 2). Because of its shallowness Lake Wular does not thermally stratify, unlike Lake Manasbal which experiences an oxygen deficit in the bottom layer of water (Wanganeo, 1984).

Kashmir Valley lakes have water with alkaline character (pH 7.4-9.6), the high pH values in summer being the result of an intensive photosynthetic activity from rich phytoplankton. The vertical gradient of dissolved oxygen concentrations differs from lake to lake. In Lake Wular, which is mixed throughout the year, oxygen concentrations do not vary much from the surface to the bottom. Lake Manasbal and the Nagin basin of Lake Dal have a clinograde type of oxygen profile, i.e. with the depth the dissolved oxygen concentration decreases. The lower water layers of the two lakes get oxygen depletion during the summer period which indicates that the lakes are eutrophic. This is further confirmed by high concentrations of phosphorus in summer. Zutshi (1989) noted a net positive input of 4.36 t of phosphorus and 39.2 t of nitrogen per annum in Lake Dal. This is the result of a high input of nutrients reaching the lake from human settlements, hotels and arable land surrounding it.

Further evidence of high inputs of nutrients in these lakes comes from the extensive cover of aquatic macrophytes. Macrophytes occupy nearly 80% of Lake Dal, with the dominance of Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, Potamogeton, Hydrilla, Nymphoides and Salvinia (Kant and Kachroo, 1977). About 8 t of carbon per ha is fixed annually by macrophytes giving a ratio of 1:8 between phytoplankton and macrophytic carbon in this system, which suggests that in floodplain lakes of Kashmir Valley the dominant producer may not be phytoplankton, but aquatic macrophytes. Zooplankton concentrations are rather low, although there is no direct zooplankton consumer in the lakes (Wanganeo, 1984). The highest density of benthos was recorded in Lake Wular, followed by Lake Manasbal and Lake Dal.

Most fish species inhabiting the Himalayan region are small in size. Their distribution depends on environmental conditions such as current velocity, nature of substratum, and the availability of food. Schizothoracines, the indigenous cyprinids (also called snow trout), are well adapted to such conditions. They are fish of streams and lakes, and are fished by subsistence, full and part-time fishermen. Ecological degradation of water bodies and overfishing have led to a decline in schizothoracine fish stocks.

In floodplain lakes of Kashmir Valley the major species are: Schizothorax niger, S. micropogon, S. curvirostris, S. planifrons, Schizothoraichthys esocinus, Labeo dero, L. dyocheilus, Crossocheilus latius, Puntius conchonicus, Glyptothorax kashmiriensis, and Gambusia affinis. Schizothoracines are highly valued fish, preferred to most other fish species. They feed on detritus, attached plant (including algal) coating of stones and rocks, and the associated invertebrate fauna. They grow slowly, and attain maturity at the age of 2 years (Sunder and Subla, 1984). All species of the group except S. niger exhibit spawning migration to the incoming streams and rivers and lay eggs in shallow pools amidst gravel and sand. S. niger, however, prefers clean and cold pockets of water in lakes for egg-laying, and it also lays eggs on the roots of willow trees (Vass and Raina, 1979). The spawning season extends from spring to early summer. The average fecundity of this group ranges between 10,000 and 40,000 eggs per kg body weight, the lowest being in S. niger, and the highest in S. esocinus. During the breeding season schizothoracines exhibit sexual dimorphism (Raina, 1976). Details on the biology of schizothoracines are given in Table 3.

In 1959 common carp was introduced in Kashmir to augment the fish yield (Sehgal, 1989). Since then, this species has invaded all the meandering rivers, floodplain akes and wetlands, and it has become a major commercial fish in Kashmir Valley. More recently its stocks and the mean size of fish have been declining owing to the heavy fishing pressure (Raina, 1987). While the catch rate in 1977 was 850 grams per man hour, in 1984 it was only 325 g/m/h.

In the Kashmir lakes common carp spawns from May to June in beds of aquatic plants, such as Ceratophyllum, Myriophyllum, Potamogeton, and Hydrilla. Eutrophication has contributed to the rapid increase in Salvinia natans (Jana, 1998). In the late 1980s mechanical harvesters were employed against the aquatic macrophytes, but such harvesters do not remove floating plants such as Salvinia.

Most fishing is done by cast nets. Other fishing methods use long-lines, scoop nets and traps, which account for 5-7% of the total fishing gear. Fish production from floodplain lakes is not well documented. Available data show that prior to the introduction of common carp the fish yield was low. With its introduction in Kashmir, yields have increased spectacularly. During 1974-77 Pandit and Qadri (1986) recorded a mean annual catch of
1640 t. Common carp constituted 1380 t, while schizothoracines represented 387 t of the total catch. The average fish yield in Lake Dal was estimated to be 16.5 kg ha-1, and that in Lake Wular 17-25 kg ha-1 (Vass and Zutshi, 1983).

In Kashmir, wetlands called sars cover more than 4000 ha and serve as a natural refuge for a wide variety of organisms. The wetlands are situated on floodplains of the River Jhelum. While some wetlands, such as Haigam and Hokarsar, are maintained by the State Government as bird sanctuaries, as they provide excellent habitats for water fowl, wild duck and geese migrating from China, Russia and other distant regions during winter, wetlands are also important habitats for fish. The principal species using wetlands are common carp, Schizothorax niger, Crossocheilus latus, Puntius conchonius and Gambusia affinis. The fish yield in wetlands varies from 15 to 30 kg ha-1 yr-1. In wetlands minnows are caught with scoop nets in large numbers during summer months. The fish is sun-dried or smoked and it fetches a high price.

3. GLACIAL LAKES
Twelve high-altitude lakes are located in Kashmir at a distance of 60 to 130 km from Srinagar. They were visited in summer months during the period 1977-1984 to obtain information on the status of their limnology and fish stocks (Vass et al., 1989). The location of these lakes is shown in Fig. 2, and basic data on their morphology and limnology are in
Table 4. The 12 lakes are located from 3200 m to 3819 m in altitude, and they range from 1 ha to 157 ha in size. Some lakes reach a maximum depth of 80 m.

The high mountain lakes have rocky watersheds, with little or no plant cover. Summer rains are scarce and the water in the lakes comes mainly from snow-melt from glaciers on the surrounding mountains. The lakes are covered with ice for six to nine months. Water transparency in the glacial lakes is determined by the concentration of suspended sediments, which are mainly glacial silt, and by plankton in summer months. Water transparency ranges from 0.5 to 12 m Secchi disc. Summer surface water temperature reaches 15oC, but the average summer water temperature does not exceed 13oC. Most lakes develop summer stratification, with a temperature difference of 8-9oC between epilimnion and hypolimnion. High values of dissolved oxygen, pH of 6.7-7.4, low concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus, and conductivity of 15 to 130 µmhos are some other abiotic characteristics which suggest that most of these lakes are oligotrophic. Phytoplankton is dominated by diatoms, followed by green algae. Lakes Konsernag and Kishansar are rich in blue-green algae (Vass et al., 1989). Zooplankton is dominated by copepods.

Of the twelve lakes, six contain fish. Four lakes (Gangabal, Nundkol, Kishansar and Vishansar) contain the exotic brown trout (Vass et al., 1989). Lakes Gadsar and Zumsar have an endemic schizothoracine Diptychus maculatus. This fish is also present in the inflowing streams. Like other schizothoracines, it feeds on benthic plants, mainly on those attached to rocks and stones, and on the associated benthic invertebrates. Diptychus, which is a common fish in the two lakes, reaches 225 mm and 125 g in weight at the age of 7 years. It has a low fecundity of up to 380 eggs (in a 125g female). It is fished for subsistence by herdsmen during summer. Brown trout is allowed to be fished with fly, but only by licenced anglers.

Lake Chandertal (4270 m altitude), located in Lahul Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh, has been stocked with brown trout by the Himachal Pradesh Fisheries Department.

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