1. Explain the interaction between temperament and environment using the concepts of the developmental niche and goodness of fit.
There is a bi-directional relationship between a child's temperament and his or her environment. A child's temperament influences the way he or she is treated by caregivers, while at the same time, caregiver responses affect the likelihood that a child will repeat any given behavior. In relation to the developmental niche concept, the behaviors that are reinforced in children vary from culture to culture, depending on social expectations and caregiver philosophies. For example, a trait desirable in young children in the United States is independence. Therefore, children are expected to sleep alone almost from birth. In other cultures where independence is less important, children often sleep with their parents for several years before moving to a bed of their own. Goodness of fit refers to how well a child's temperament is matched to that of his or her caregivers. If temperaments are not compatible, the child is at risk for problems adjusting in society as he or she ages.
2. Distinguish among different cultural constructions of person and self as described in the chapter.
The development of identity as a person is linked to the expectations of society. In collectivist cultures, people are given names linking them with other members of their society. An example cited in the Gardiner text is of the Balinese, who refer to parents not by their individual names, but as mother and father-of their child. In comparison, individualistic societies commonly refer to a person by a first mane, emphasizing their uniqueness rather than a relationship to others. A person's sense of self is also shaped by his or her culture. In most Western cultures, people are taught from early on to emphasize their own needs, to "look out for number one". This is not the case in all societies. In many Asian cultures, the ideal person is self-less, or concerned less with their own identity and more with the experience of reality around them. Theses examples demonstrate the influence of culture on self-concept.
3. Describe independent and interdependent conceptions of self as they relate to the larger cultural dimension of individualism/collectivism.
In individualistic cultures, the sense of self is a relatively stable concept, remaining consistent throughout many life changes. The self is narrowly defined in theses cultures; it does not extend beyond the person. In collectivist cultures, the sense of self is much broader, expanding to include relationships with family, friends, and others. These inter-relationships cause a person's sense of self to be more flexible because it changes whenever relationships to others change.
4. Critically evaluate the cross-cultural validity of Erikson's ideas on identity formation.
According to Erikson, several life crises experienced as a child must be successfully resolved for identity formation to proceed smoothly during adolescence. Identity formation is seen as a challenging period of turmoil, during which the adolescent must make choices affecting the direction his or her life will take in the future. While this may be the case in Western society, adolescents in other cultures have been found to make this transition more easily. These easier transitions are especially common in societies where adolescents have fewer choices for their futures. When children's paths are predetermined, there is no cause for anxiety surrounding identity formation.
5. Use the concept of social clocks as a developmental framework and apply it to a variety of specific ecological systems.
Social clocks are the timeframes in which individuals are expected to complete certain major life tasks including childhood, marriage, childbirth, and others. The time for which these tasks should be completed is dependent upon the society. When events occur at expected times on the social clock individuals adapt to them easier than events occurring off schedule.