As infants, humans develop attachments to their caregivers. Depending on the infant's early experiences, the child will form a specific pattern of attachment. Three attachment patterns found cross-culturally are secure, anxious-avoidant, and anxious-resistant. Placement in these categories is determined by the infant's reactions to situations in which he or she is separated from the primary caregiver. Availability of the primary caregiver and the number of other people involved in caring for the infant are two conditions of the infant's environment that have a strong effect on the infant's attachment formation. As with the majority of developmental aspects, responses to these influences vary across cultures.
2. Conceptualize patterns of social relationships throughout the lifespan as changing aspects of the ecological system in which social development takes place.
Social relationships alter dramatically throughout the lifespan. The strongest social relationship, as an infant, is between the child and his or her parents. If the child is cared for by others outside the family, social relationships will form with those individuals as well, however, the parents are making the majority of choices regarding the child's acess to other people. As children age, their relationships expand. They begin forming peer groups with children at school or in their neighborhoods. These relationships provide the basis for children's development of important social skills such as conflict resolution and sharing. Relationships with peers become even more influential as children enter adolescence, and help the child form his or her social identity. In adulthood, forming an intimate relationship and combining social identities with that person becomes the primary social focus. As adults, social relationships form around co-workers and developing families. The role of the elderly varies between cultures, but family members in most cultures provide care and social contact for their aging relatives.
3. Compare and contrast theories of social development (e.g. psychosocial development, moral development, and social identity development) and discuss their cultural implications.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been found to be gender and culturally biased. Kohlberg based his theory on an analysis of white, college aged males. Carol Gilligan found that women's moral reasoning was primarily guided by the welfare of others, while men's tended to emphasize logic and abstract principles of justice. Cultural differences in justice orientation have also been studied, including the tendency of non-Western societies to value the good of the many over the good of the few. This theory is a prime example of the necessity to include culturally and gender diverse samples in research supporting developmental theories. Another example of cultural implications can be seen in the theory of social identity formation. The ability to find one's place within a larger cultural context is related to a person's group affiliations. If a person is a member of groups that hold high levels of social power and esteem, he or she will have an easier time forming an identity with that group than with a group having low social status. Again, the emphasis of culture on development is clearly seen.
4. Demonstrate an understanding of the underlying cultural factors that lead to different values applied to social behavior.
The major underlying factor that leads to differences in values placed on social behavior is the pattern of socialization within the culture. Some cultures exhibit a pattern of broad socialization. These cultures place a high value on independence and freethinking, and less value on conformity. Other cultures exhibit a pattern of narrow socialization and place a high value on conformity and adherence to social norms. This explains why behaviors that are acceptable in one culture are forbidden in others. Another important factor in the value of certain social behaviors is the role of a specific group within a major culture. If a social behavior is primarily associated with a minority group, it may be less accepted, or misunderstood more frequently, than behaviors more common to the majority culture.
5. Comment on cultural influences on parent-child relationships.
The cultural contexts in which eating and sleeping occur have an important influence on parent-child relationships. One example of cultural context is the nursing of infants. In cultures where breast-feeding is commonly practiced, mothers and their children will have a closer relationship than those in cultures where children are fed by wet-nurses. This can be explained by the amount of time infants spend nursing, and the presence or absence of their mothers during this time. Sleeping arrangements also have a profound effect on parent-child relationships. In cultures that emphasize interdependence, children are more likely to sleep in the same bed or room as their parents. Co-sleeping strengthens the child's interdependence, and may encourage social learning and awareness as well.