Cognition is defined as the act or process of gaining knowledge. In Western cultures, children receive more reinforcement of behaviors that revolve around the objective properties of objects, while children in Non-western cultures receive more reinforcement for social and emotional behaviors. Children in Western and Non-western cultures also show differences in the way they learn to read, especially if the language systems used are very different, such as English and Chinese. In many cultures, especially Non-Western, Piaget's tests for formal operations are not applicable because these cultures do not place a high value on what is being tested. In these same cultures, children are able to display formal operational thought if the task is relative to their culture.
2. Discuss the relationship between culture, cognition, and language. Describe the Sapir-Whorf ("linguistic relativity") hypothesis. What are its explanatory strengths and weaknesses?
It has been proposed that cognition is affected by the language people speak. Many people believe culture also affects the way people think about things or experiences. It is not possible for people to think about things without including their cultural frame of reference. Whorf and Sapir proposed that these differences are caused by the structural and vocabulary differences of language. One weakness of this theory is that it fails to explain the many similarities of thought among users of different languages. One strength of this theory is that it provides an easy way to explain cultural differences in cognition.
3. Identify examples of Vygotsky's contextualist approach during language acquisition and the importance of scaffolding in parent-infant interaction.
Vygotsky believed that social interaction is essential for learning. Because of this, it is impossible to learn the language of a culture without learning the thoughts and ideas of the culture as well. He also stated that as children learn language that is more complex, they are able to use the language to organize complex levels of thought. Scaffolding is important in this process because children are learning cognitive skills at the same time that they are learning to live within their particular cultures expectations.
4. Identify examples of dialectical thought and adaptive logic in early adulthood and discuss how each might be conceptualized and measured in different ecocultural systems.
Dialectical thought is the knowledge that for every viewpoint, at least one other opposing viewpoint exists. Some cultures may value this type of knowledge, especially those that place an emphasis on new ideas and intellectual growth. Cultures that depend on tradition, may not view this type of intelligence as positively. In order to measure dialectical thought, the questions asked would have to be meaningful to the subject's culture, otherwise the subject would be placed in a disadvantaged position. Adaptive logic is the ability to balance the analytical requirements of an objective observation with a person's subjective reaction to the observation. An example of this is how people classify objects. Some people may group like objects together, while others may group them by which are used together. This shows the importance of cultural awareness in tests for level of cognition.
5. Distinguish between fluid and crystallized intelligence and comment on cultural variations in the way wisdom and experience are viewed in terms of different societies' unique developmental niches.
Fluid intelligence refers to a person's ability to think about new information as it occurs. It also refers to the ability to apply current knowledge to new situations. Crystallized intelligence refers to all the information and experience a person has accumulated throughout his or her lifespan. In cultures, such as the United States where speed and efficiency are emphasized, a higher value is placed on fluid intelligence. In cultures of this type, crystallized intelligence is viewed as a slow, tedious process. In many other cultures, such as Mexico and Japan where methodical thinking, wisdom, and age are appreciated, a higher value is placed on crystallized intelligence. These cultures may view displays of fluid intelligence as rash, or risky.