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| rather than the deeds themselves, that determine future consequences. Thus the same deed committed with different mental factors will have different consequences. Likewise purely accidental deeds may have neutral consequences; how-ever, if the accident occurred because insufficient mindfulness was exercised it could have adverse results for the person responsible for it. The theory of karma presupposes that individuals have "free will." Everything that happens to an in-ividual is not the fruit of some past karma. In fact, the experiences that involve an individual may be of three kinds: some are the result of past action, some are deliberately committed free acts; and the remainder could be due to chance factors operating in the environment. The doctrine of karma is not a theory of predestination of any kind. One common misunderstanding is not to distinguish between the action and its results - between karma and vip�ka. It must also be mentioned that the fruiting of an act may be postponed, and that it is possible to reach Enlightenment - the goal of the Buddha's path - before all the previous karmas have yielded their results. The Buddhist theory of rebirth asserts that the fruits of some karma may manifest themselves in "future lives." This brings us to the Buddhist theory of rebirth. Similar concepts occur in other religious systems - e.g. the Platonic theory of the "pre-existence of the soul" and the Hindu-Jain theory of re-incarnation. Such reincarnation theory involves the transmigration of a soul. In Buddhism, however, it is the unripened karmic acts outstanding at the death of an individual which conditions a new birth. The last moment of consciousness too is also a conditioning factor, but it is the store of unripened karma generated by volitional acts of previous existences which generates the destiny of the new individual. A newly born individual needs not only the genetic blueprint derived from the genes of the natural parents, but also a karmic blueprint derived from the volitional acts of a deceased person. The question has been posed whether the new individual is the same as the old individual whose karma it has inherited. The Buddha's answer to this question was somewhat enigmatic: "It is not the same, yet it is not another." To understand the Buddha's reply we have to investigate the criteria which establish personal identity. Is the child the same as the adult it later becomes? In the Buddhist sense we are making two observations at two points of time in a constantly changing psycho-physical entity. For legal and conventional purposes some arbitrary criteria are used, such as physical continuity over time, or the retention of memory. These define only a conventional person. Just as it is a conventional or "fictional" person who lasts continuously from birth to death, so it is just such a conventional person who persists from one life to another. In the Buddhist view of rebirth the only links between two successive lives is the karmic residue carried over and an element of consciousness, called the re-linking consciousness, which momen-tarily links the two lives. In Buddhism there is no conception of a transmigrating soul which inhabits successive materi-al bodies until it unites with God. Buddhism uses the Pali term sams�ra to denote the "round of births" in various planes of existence governed by the law of karma. The acceptance of the validity of the hypothesis of sams�ra is very difficult for some people, while for others it is the most natural of hypotheses. Some features of the observable world suggests it. In the Culakammavibhanga Sutra the Buddha is asked: "What is the reason and the cause for the inequali-ty amongst human beings despite their being human?" (The context making it clear that it is inequality at birth that is meant.) The Buddha answered: "Beings inherit their karma, and it is karma which divides beings in terms of their ine-quality." The theistic hypothesis cannot give a rational answer, except in terms of an iniquitous and unjust "God." |
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| give good results and vice versa. It is the quality of an act which determines its con-sequences. But what determines the karmic quality of a deed? In Hinduism it is the correct performance of a person's "duty," especially his caste duties that counts. Early Buddhism, which recognised no caste distinctions, evaluates the karmic quali-ty of an act in terms of moral and ethical criteria. In particular, it is the mental fac-tors which accompany the commission of deed that determines its consequences or "fruits." All negative karma (i.e. those leading to bad consequences) arise from the three roots of unwholesomeness. These are greed, aversion, and delusion. Accord-ingly, good karmic results follow from deeds that spring from generosity, loving-kindness and wisdom. The Buddha emphasised that it is the mental factors involved, |
| The Doctrines of Karma and Rebirth - The Buddhist doctrine of karma [kamma] ("deeds," "actions"), and the closely related doctrine of rebirth, are perhaps the best known, and of-ten the least understood, of Buddhist doctrines. The matter is complicated by the fact that the other Indian religious traditions of Hinduism and Jainism have their own theories of Karma and Reincarnation. It is in fact the Hindu versions that are better known in the West. The Buddhist theory of karma and rebirth are quite distinct from their other Indian counterparts. In Buddhism, the law of karma is the moral law of causation - good actions |
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| Some support for the theory of rebirth comes from reports of recollections of past lives, whether spontaneously or under hypnosis, which have been reported from all parts of the world. While many such reports may be mistaken or even fraudulent, some are undoubtedly genuine. According to Buddhism, individuals can develop the power of "retrocognition" (i.e. the ability to recall past lives), but the development of such supernormal powers is usually the accompaniment of progress along the spiritual path of Enlightenment. It may be possible that some karmic factors may predispose some individuals towards such experiences. However parapsychological experimenta-tion is still in its early stages, and many people have no personal recollection of their |
| own previous lives. For such individuals the dogmatic acceptance of the doctrines of karma and rebirth is not expected. The central tenets of Buddhism relate not to any abstract theories about rebirth or karma but to the interpretation of human experience which is within the capacity of every person to verify. |
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| The Four Schools of Tibetan Buddhism - There are four different schools of Tibetan Buddhism; the one simi-larity they all share is that their systems originated in India. They pay allegiance to Buddha Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha. The schools of Tibetan Buddhism are Mahayana [The Great Wheel], which spreads the belief that ALL sentient beings must achieve Enlightenment, not just a few. The Nyingma School: This is the oldest school and the name literally means �Old School.� Samantabhadra is considered the �primordial Buddha� [of which Buddha Shakyamuni and Vajradhara are emanations of Samantabhadra]. The most famed and respected human teacher is the 8th century C.E. Indian mystic Padmasambhava who brought Buddhism to Tibet. Tibetans commonly refer to Padmasambhava as Guru Rinpoche. In a biography written by his disciple, Yeshe Tsogyel, his early years were similar to that of Buddha Shakyamuni in that he was born in Northern India in a large many-colored lotus that arose in the midst of a lake. Padmasambhava was adopted by the King of Oddiyana, who had no son, and lived a luxurious life in the palace. Also, like Buddha Shakyamuni, he had to leave the palace in order to devel-op and learn more about advanced yogic studies. Padmasambhava began traveling to spread the teachings and went to China and Turkestan. He then went to Tibet, but first had to tame the demons that tried to keep Buddhism out of the Land of the Snows. The demons were strongly linked to the pre-Buddhist religion of Bon but were eventually converted by Padmasambhava�s great mind and became protector deities. The first Buddhist monastery was built in Samye and the long procedure of translating the Indian texts into Tibetan began. The Nyingma School has classified the Buddhist teach-ings into Nine Vehicles. The first three are: hearer, solitary realizer and Bodhisattva. Connected with the outer tantras are: action tantra, performance tantra and yoga tantra. The last three are inner tantra: mahayoga, anuyoga and atiyoga [dzogchen]. Dividing the Nine Vehicles into four categories is done to create the spiritual continuum. Path, fruit and method continuum, then follow basis continuum. Further divisions of basis include correct view, which in turn has three aspects 1] entity; 2] nature; and 3] compassion. Path continuum is all about accumulations of merit and wisdom. Fruit continuum is the 11th level and Method continuum is the highest level. That person becomes a Buddha and is able to teach anyone Buddhism at whatever level is appropriate. There are two ways that the teachings are passed along in the Nyingma school. The first is through teachings - the unbroken oral transmission originating from Buddha Shakyamuni to his disciples which continues to this day. The second is through terma, the texts that were hidden by Padmasamhava and later discovered by the tertons [treasure revealers]. Dzogchen is part of the Nyingma School but is considered very difficult to comprehend. Also known as the Mind-Only school, dzogchen is the quickest and most profound path to En-lightenment. The Kagyu School: This is the �Teaching Lineage� of Tibetan Buddhism. Founded by the Indian sage, Tilopa [988-1069], the Kagyus believe that Vajradhara received the original instructions, and that those teachings are superior to those of Buddha Shakyamuni. Tilopa transmitted the teachings to his student Naropa [1016-1100] who later become the abbot of Nalanda Monastery, the most exalted monastery in India at that time. Marpa and Milarepa were considered two more Enlightened masters/teachers of the Kagyu School and others followed. There are four great and eight lesser schools in the Kagyu lineage. 4 Great: 1] Karma Kagyu, 2] Tselpa Kagyu, 3] Baram Kagyu, and 4] Pakmo Kagyu. 8 Lesser: 1] Dri-kung, 2] Taklung, 3] Tropu, 4] Drukpa, 5] Mar, 6] Yerpa, 7] Shuksep, and 8] Yamsang. Not all of these schools are around today - Drikung, Drukpa and Taklung are in existence and there are two new schools: Shangpa Kagyu and Ug-yen Nyendrup. The 6 Yogas of Naropa are named after the Indian master who taught them to his disciples. They are: 1] Heat Yoga. This develops the body heat, which is particularly helpful in colder climates like Tibet. 2] Illusory Body Yoga. This allows the mind to understand that the phenomena of ordinary reality is a mental creation. 3] Dream Yoga. The student practices visualizations in the dream state which are harmonious with his/her practice. 4] Clear Light Yoga. The student becomes aware of the true nature of mind - which is that of clear light. 5] Bardo Yoga. The bardo is the intermediate state and there are 6 of them: 1. The bardo between birth and death, or everyday reality. 2. The bardo of the dream state. 3. Reality bardo which happens at the time of unconsciousness when the mind�s overwhelmed at death. 4. The bardo of becoming, fantastic visions, both beautiful and frightening are but reflections of the mind. 5. The bardo of meditative absorption, which lasts as long as someone can meditate. 6. The bardo of birth is that which brings us into our next existence. 6] Transference of Consciousness Yoga. At the time of death the state of one�s mind dictates where he/she will wind up -it can be anywhere from the lower realms to a Buddha pure land or even Enlightenment if the mind is properly attuned. Mahamudra, which means �great seal� is the essence of all Buddhist teachings. It is a direct understanding of truth - and that knowledge isn�t found in texts. Those who study Mahamudra do so after doing preliminary practices which help cleanse negative karma. Meditation is also very important amidst the Kagyu School and there are many forms of it from single-minded contemplation to exercises for overcoming the Four Faults [the mind is: too close, too profound, too easy and too excellent]. There is Meditative Therapy for understanding the mind and achieving psychic good health. And there is Cho, which means cutting off, eliminating the sense of �I.� |
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| of the �13 Golden Doctrines.� These consist of: cycles of the 3 dakinis [angels] Naro, Metri and Indra; cycles of 3 lesser red-colored deities: Garbhasuvarnasutrasi, Hinudevi and Vasudhara, the 3 deities Pranasadhana, Simhanada and Saba-lagarudo; and teachings relating to Amaravajradevi, Simhavaktra and white Amitayus. Lamdre [path including its fruit] is a vision of Buddhist practice based on the Hevajra Tantra. As a person can�t differentiate path from fruit, nor can the reverse hold true, from the point of view of Enlightenment all such laws disappear. The �Triple Appearance� is another significant theory as it consists of: 1] the appearance of phenomena as tainted error; 2] the appearance of experience in meditation; and 3] pure appearance. Lamdre texts describe these as being pretty much the same and only the difference is in our perception. The Gelugpa School: Founded by Tsong Khapa Lobsang Drakpa [1357-1419], the Gelugpa translates as the Virtuous School. The Dalai Lamas have always been the head of the Virtuous Order, the newest of the Tibetan Buddhist schools. Tsong Khapa was born in Amdo province, East Tibet, and his birth was predicted by both Shakyamuni Buddha and Pad-masambhava. Tsong Khapa�s parents had many auspicious dreams before their son was born including a few concerning Avalokiteshvara [the Buddha of Compassion] and Manjushri. Indeed he was a special child as he became a monk at the age of three, and received novice vows at seven years of age when he was given the name Lobsang Drakpa, the name Padmasmbhava had predicted of the great lama born in the east. Traveling around Tibet, he learned from dozens of masters of Buddhism, including the Sakya sage Rendawa who recognized Tsong Khapa as a prodigy and was able to learn from the student. Tsong Khapa later went on a lengthy retreat where he was able to receive direct teachings from Man-jushri. He completed 3.5 million full-length prostrations. To this day the stone floor upon which he did them retains the furrows worn into it, a significant visual record of Tsong Khapa�s intense devotion. Tsong Khapa wrote the �Great Expo-stion of the Stages of the Path,� and more esoteric works. He later wrote a lengthy dissertation on strategies for scrip-tural interpretation. On a more down-to-earth level, he came up with the idea of a yearly religious festival that would start the Tibetan New Year of Losar. Monlam, [The Great Prayer Festival] is celebrated in Tibetan communities to this day. Studying and practice of Tibetan Buddhism was as important as writing and teaching. Buddhism amongst the other schools seemed to have little mental or physical discipline. That realization, along with requests from his disciples to limit his traveling, brought him to found Ganden Monastery near Lhasa, in 1410. Drepung, the largest, later housing up to 6,000 monks [1416], and Sera [1419], were all built near the capital of Tibet. The Gelugpa monastic system emphasi-zes scholastics very highly. Monks are encouraged to strive for the Geshe [Dr. of Buddhist Philosophy] degree, a feat which requires the monk to learn and memorize many Indian and Tibetan Buddhist texts, Sanskrit, monastic discipline and intense meditation. The training lasts from 15-20 years. Entering the path of Enlightenment when in the Gelugpa School, a student practices lamrim [stages of the path]. In the short text of only 14 verses, Tsong Khapa�s �3 Principles of the Path� is put into shorthand of: 1] intention to leave cyclic existence; 2] generate the intent to free all sentient be-ings and, 3] correct view of emptiness. This remains the pure essence of all Buddhist teachings and practices. Meditation is encouraged and there are several practices for all levels of Buddhists. Developing compassion is an essential part of not just the teachings of the Gelugpa School, but the basis of all schools of Tibetan Buddhism. (by Lisa Maliga) |
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| The Sakya School: Established in the town of Sakya in south-central Tibet, Sakya means �gray earth� which is considered an auspicious sign. Sakya monastery was established in 1073 by Gonchok Gyelpo [1034-1102]. The monastery�s location was advantageous as it was along established trade routes. Gon- chok Gyelpo�s son, the �Great Sakyapa� Gunga Nyingpo [1092-1158], categorized the Sakya teachings. Considered an incarnation of Manjushri, the Buddha of Wisdom, the teachings were received directly, some of them when he was still a boy. �Separation from the 4 Attachments� is one of the essential teachings of Buddhism. From 1182-1251 Gunga Gyeltsen Bel Sangpo, known as Sakya Pandita, �The Scholar of the Sakyas,� was also thought to be an incarnation of Manjushri. As an infant he would write Sanskrit characters in the dirt and then avoid crawling over them. His gift to the Sakya School was his ability to understand knowledge of both Buddhist origin and non-Buddhist alike. Widely recog-nized as a great debater, he answered the challenge to a Vedanta philosopher and succeeded in winning the debate, causing the philosopher to convert to Buddhism. One of his most influential works was the �Differentiation of the 3 Vows,� which discusses individual liberation, Bodhisattva vows and samaya [commitment] vows. The Sakya school has two main subsects: Ngorpa and Tsarpa, named after the lo-ctions of the monasteries. The Ngorpas are the scholars. The Tsarpas are known for the transmission |
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| Bon: A Heterodox System (Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism) Tibetans commonly draw a distinction between three religious traditions: (1) the divine Dharma (Iha chos), or Buddhism; (2) Bon Dharma (bon chos); and (3) the Dharma of human beings (mi chos), or folk religion. The first category includes doctrines and practices that are thought to be distinctively Buddhist. This classification implicitly assumes that the divine Dharma is separate and distinct from the other two, although Tibetan Buddhism clearly incorporated elements of both of these traditions. Bon is commonly considered to be the indigenous religious tradition of Tibet, a system of shamanistic and animistic practices performed by priests called shen (gshen) or bonpo (bon po). Although this is widely assumed by Buddhists, historical evidence indi-cates that the Bon tradition only developed as a self-conscious religious system under the influence of Buddhism. When Buddhism entered the country, practitioners of indigenous traditions recognized that there were clear differences be-tween their own practices and those of the foreign faith, and in time people who perceived themselves as adherents of the old religion of Tibet developed a separate tradition, but one that incorporated many Buddhist elements. Although later historical works state that the introduction of Buddhism was initially opposed by "Bon," this term is not even used in the early dynastic records to refer to indigenous traditions and practices. Instead, they are called cho (chos), the same term later used to translate the Sinskrit term Dharma, which in Buddhist literature refers to Buddhist doctrine and practice. In inscriptions on the tomb of king Senalek (799-815), for example, the term bon refers to the royal priests whose job was to perform rituals for the Yarlung kings. In early, records, "bon" denotes a particular type of priest who performed rituals to propitiate local spirits and ensure the well-being of the dead in the afterlife. It is only much later, under the influence of Buddhism, that "Bon" comes to designate pre-Buddhist Tibetan religious practices in general. It should also be noted that the rituals performed by these early priests as reported in the old records appear to differ sub-stantially from contemporary Bon. As Per Kvaerne notes, for example, they were by all accounts concerned with taking care of the dead through ceremonies intended to ensure their safe journey to the afterlife and their material prosperity after arrival. The rituals of the bon often involved sacrificing animals (mainly horses, yaks, and sheep), making offer-ings of food and drink, and burying the dead with precious jewels, the benefits of which were apparently transferred to them in the afterlife through shamanistic rituals. The most elaborate of these were the ceremonies for the kings, each of whom was buried in a specially constructed tomb, and apparently joined in death by servants, ministers, and retain-ers. The royal priests then performed special ceremonies, which according to old records sometimes lasted for several years. These were intended to ensure the well-being of the kings in the afterlife and to solicit their help in mundane affairs.The Tibetan folk religion encompasses indigenous beliefs and practices, many of which predate the introduction |
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| beings, and people living in these areas are strongly aware of their presence. In order to stay in their good graces, Tibet-ans give them offerings, perform rituals to propitiate them, and sometimes refrain from going to particular places so as to avoid the more dangerous forces. In the often harsh environment of Tibet, such practices are believed to give people a measure of control over their unpredictable and sometimes hazardous surroundings. With the almost total triumph of Buddhism in Tibet, the folk religion became infused with Buddhist elements and practices, but it still remains distinct in the minds of the people, mainly because its focus is on pragmatic mundane benefits, and not on final liberation or the benefit of others. By all accounts, Tibetans have always been fascinated by magical and occult practices, and from the earliest times have viewed their country as the abode of countless supernatural forces whose actions have direct bearing on their lives. Since Buddhist teachers tend to focus on supramundane goals, Tibetans naturally seek the services of lo-cal shamans, whose function is to make contact with spirits, to predict their influences on people's lives, and to perform rituals that either overcome harmful influences or enlist their help. When Buddhism entered Tibet, it did not attempt to suppress belief in the indigenous forces. Rather, it incorporated them into its worldview, making them protectors of the Dharma who were converted by tantric adepts like Padmasambhava, and who now watch over Buddhism and fight against its enemies. An example is Tangla, a god associated with the Tangla mountains, who was convinced to become a Buddhist by Padmasambhava and now is thought to guard his area against forces inimical to the Dharma. The most pow-erful deities are often considered to be manifestations of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Oikinis, etc., but the mundane forces are thought to be merely worldly powers, who have demonic natures that have been suppressed by Buddhism. Although their conversion has ameliorated the worst of their fierceness, they are still demons who must be kept in check by sha-manistic rituals and the efforts of Buddhist adepts. Nor should it be thought that Buddhist practitioners are free from the influences of the folk religion. These beliefs and practices are prevalent in all levels of Tibetan society, and it is common to see learned scholar-lamas, masters of empirically-based dialectics and thoroughly practical in daily affairs, refuse to travel at certain times in order to avoid dangerous spirits or decide their travel schedules after first perform-ingl divination to determine the most auspicious time. Such attitudes may be dismissed as "irrational" by Westerners, but for Tibetans they are entirely pragmatic responses to a world populated by forces that are potentially harmful. Types of Spirits - According to folk beliefs, the world has three parts: sky and heavens, earth, and the "lower regions." Each of these has its own distinctive spirits, many of which influence the world of humans. The upper gods (steng Iha) live in the atmosphere and sky, the middle tsen (bar btsan) inhabit the earth, and the lower regions are the home of yoklu (g.yog klu), most notably snake-bodied beings called lu (klu naga), which live at the bottoms of lakes, rivers, and wells and are reported to hoard vast stores of treasure. The spirits that reside in rocks and trees are called nyen (gnyan); they are often malicious, and Tibetans associate them with sickness and death. Lu are believed to bring leprosy, and so it is important to keep them away from human habitations. Sadak (sa bdag, "lords of the earth") are beings that live under the ground and are connected with agriculture. Tsen are spirits that live in the atmosphere, and are believed to shoot ar-rows at humans who disturb them. These cause illness and death. Tsen appear as demonic figures with red skin, wearing helmets and riding over the mountains in red horses. Du (bdud, mara) were apparently originally atmospheric spirits, but they came to be associated with the Buddhist demons called mara which are led by their king (also named Mara), whose primary goal is to lead sentient beings into ignorance, thus perpetuating the vicious cycle of samsara. There are many other types of demons and spirits, and a comprehensive listing and discussion of them exceeds the focus of this article. Because of the great interest most Tibetans have in these beings and the widespread belief in the importance of being aware of their powers and remaining in their good graces, the folk religion is a rich and varied system, with a large pantheon, elaborate rituals and ceremonies, local shamans with special powers who can propitiate and exorcise, and divinatory practices that allow humans to predict the influences of the spirit world and take appropriate measures. All of these are now infused with Buddhist influences and ideas, but undoubtedly retain elements of the pre-Buddhist culture. Bon Teachings and Practices - Adherents of Bon view their tradition as being distinct from Buddhism, although |
| of Buddhism and which are commonly viewed as being distinct from the mainstream of Buddhist practice. These are primarily concerned with propitiation of the spirits and demons of Tibet, which are believed to inhabit all areas of the country Folk reli-gious practices rely heavily on magic and ritual and are generally intended to bring mundane benefits, such as protection from harm, good crops, healthy livestock, health, wealth, etc. Their importance to ordinary people should not be underestima-ted, since in the consciousness of most Tibetans, the world is full of multitudes of powers and spirits, and the welfare of humans requires that they be propitiated and sometimes subdued. Every part of the natural environment is believed to be alive with various types of sentient forces, who live in mountains, trees, rivers and lakes, rocks, fields, the sky, and the earth. Every region has its own native supernatural |
| by way of Zhang-zhung [Shangshung]. Such are the Bonpos, who have managed to hold their own down to the present day against the enormously more powerful representatives of orthodox Buddhism, while they are constantly and quite wrongly identified by other Tibetans... as the persistent practitioners of pre-Buddhist Tibetan religion. (by John Powers) |
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| it clearly contains many Buddhist elements. The term bon for Bonpos (practi-tioners of Bon) signifies "truth," "reality," and "the true doctrine" which provides a path to liberation. For Bonpos, bon has roughly the same range of meanings that the term cho(chos, Dharma) has for Tibetan Buddhists: it re-fers to their religion as a whole - teachings, practices etc. - which are believed to have been revealed by Enlightened beings who took rebirth in order to lead others to salvation. Bon today has absorbed many Buddhist elements, and many of its teachings are strikingly similar to those of Tibetan Buddhism. Da-vid Snellgrove contends that it has incorporated so many Buddhist elements that it has become a form of Buddhism that may fairly be regarded as hereti-cal, in that those who follow it have persisted in claiming that their religion was taught not by Sakyamuni Buddha, but by Shen-rab [Shenrap], likewise accep-ted as Buddha, and that it came not from India, but from Ta-zig [Taksik] and |
| June 10, 2004 |
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