Agriculture

Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes (Smartstax from Monsanto in collaboration with Dow AgroSciences will use eight, starting in 2010) may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield. However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, they are also the most difficult ones. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield. There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.

Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists work to find genes that enable some plants to cope with these extreme conditions and eventually to transfer these genes to the more productive crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from Arabidopsis thaliana. Arabidopsis thaliana is a tiny weed often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow. Its genetic code, approximately 115 Mb of the 125 Mb genome, which has been sequenced and interpreted and which can be manipulated in many ways. The At-DBF2 gene shows tolerance to salt, drought and the heat and cold in plants. When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells (see RNA interference), the cells withstood these conditions far better than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments. Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that resist rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys a majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections. While all of these technological advances have the probability for commercial use, they need to be researched more publicly so they can be proven as a stable source of production.

Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet. An example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer in creating Golden rice. The rice was a result of utilizing genetic modification with genetic material from corn and a soil microorganism. The genetically modified rice produced beta carotene which is converted to vitamin A. The extra beta carotene content turned the rice a golden color.

Improved taste, texture or appearance of food

Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage. Modified fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with less risk of spoilage, and a still-reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. Reduction in spoilage could expand the market for farmers in developing countries. However, there is sometimes a lack of understanding by researchers in developed countries about the actual needs of prospective beneficiaries in developing countries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist spoilage makes them less suitable for producing tempeh, a significant source of protein that depends on fermentation. Modified soybeans produce tempeh which chefs find lumpy, less palatable, and less convenient.[citation needed] This is much the same as certain varietals of apples which have been bred for appearance and often lack the taste qualities of less visually attractive varietals.

The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening. Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.

Biotechnology in cheese production:enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an alternative to animal rennet – a cheese coagulant – and an alternative supply for cheese makers.

About 85 million tons of wheat flour is used every year to bake bread. By adding an enzyme called maltogenic amylase to the flour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming that 10–15% of bread is thrown away as stale, if it could be kept fresh another 5–7 days then perhaps 2 million tons of flour per year would be saved.[citation needed] Other enzymes can cause bread to expand to make a lighter loaf, or can alter the loaf in a range of ways.

Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).

Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence—that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide-tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.

From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and "stacked genes" for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%.

Production of novel substances in crop plants

Biotechnology is finding novel uses beyond food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, rice, tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been genetically engineered to produce insulin and certain vaccines. If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and by having to keep them cold in transit. And since they would be edible, they would not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.[38] In the case of insulin grown in transgenic plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein down therefore this could not currently be administered as an edible protein.[citation needed] However, it might be produced at significantly lower cost than insulin produced in costly bioreactors. For example, Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics, Inc. reports that its safflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and approximates a reduction in the capital costs associated with building a commercial-scale insulin manufacturing facility of over $100 million, compared to traditional biomanufacturing facilities.

Animal biotechnology

In animals, biotechnology techniques are being used to improve genetics and for pharmaceutical or industrial applications. Molecular biology techniques can help drive breeding programs by directing selection of superior animals. Animal cloning, through somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), allows for genetic replication of selected animals. Genetic engineering, using recombinant DNA, alters the genetic makeup of the animal for selected purposes, including for producing therapeutic proteins in cows and goats.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is considering approving a genetically altered salmon with an increased growth rate