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| Reference Material |
| Secularism, Religion and Nation-Building By Edilwasif T. Baddiri Secularism has taken different forms and meanings in shaping national identity, the role of religion and the role of the state in different countries. Its role is vastly influenced by historical, cultural and religious factors. The introduction and development of secularism is unanimously viewed as having a critical role in shaping national identity and nation-building. In countries like Indonesia, Turkey and France, secularism is viewed as necessary in creating one nation and one national identity. In countries like Egypt and Iran, secularism is viewed as a dangerous ideology associated with Western decadence and corruption. The contrary views are comprehensible when scrutinized thru the lens of history, culture and tradition. In proceeding to the scrutiny, these questions are important guides: how and why was secularism introduced; who introduced it; how did it align with the people�s religion; and how did it affect the people�s lives. The historical experience of Europe on the interplay of religion, state and nation was instructive in shaping up secularism. The religious wars brought forth toleration through exhaustion that reshaped Europe. Initially, religion provided the social cohesion prior to the emergence of a centralizing monarchy or ruler. The centralizing authority then controlled religion to establish national authority. The religion became the root of national identity. As states embraced toleration, secularization emerged. Today, there is a continuing trend of secularization that is reflected by contemporary events. France�s intense religious wars and extensive religious discrimination in peacetime leading to the 1787 Edict of Toleration set it to strict adoption of secularism. As a result, the 1789 French Revolution was a definitive break for secularism in creating one community and defining the French citizen. It broke away from the confessional citizenship that was imposed by the king and the Catholic clergy. Secularization was a �gradual process� with many forms and causes resulting in the �marginalization of religious concerns and religious culture.� It pushed religion towards the �private concerns of the individual.� Today, secularism trumps in France. In its ban of headscarves in public schools, it posits that it is contrary to the state�s goal of creating a common political community. In Europe, especially France, where secularism has played a defining part in a liberal democracy, religion will not trump and religious groups becomes like any interest group whose success is defined by its ability to mobilize. In Iran, the successful political mobilization of Khomenei against the Shah propelled a religious group to power. Secularism as embodied by the Shah�s regime of corruption and ruthless repression of the people was replaced by Islam which gave hope for reforms and justice. Secularism faced an Islamic counter-attack led by an able leader that united the people in the common goal of putting a religious government in power. Egypt under Nasser had a similar history with secularism. Nasser toasted socialism model for governance. He, however, alienated his people by the despotism and corruption of his regime. He generated a response from the religious opposition which viewed secularism as evil and Islam as the solution. The Indonesian experience was enhanced by colonization. With the Dutch colonizers� defeat, Sukarno ventured to create �one nation.� It was challenged because the confessional identity cross-cut the national identity. Colonization galvanized the Indonesian identity with Islam having enormous contribution to the independence struggle and the creation of an Indonesian national identity. There was a feeling of �Muslim First� before anything else. To do that, however, would be disastrous to the creation of one nation. Sukarno had to create a new identity using indigenous terms that would supersede religious identities. He created the principle of PANCASILA as the Indonesian national ideology and became the measure for legitimacy of regimes. This new ideology kept Islam from trumping and secularism to flourish. Secularism was necessary to keep the nation together but it continuously experienced a religious counter-attack. Turkey had a different experience. It was never the subject of European colonial rule but subjected itself to self-initiated colonialism. Secularism as exemplified by Western civilization was viewed as a �saving� ideology. Secularism meant modernization and progress. The continuing decline of the Ottoman rule impelled Ataturk to embrace secularism. He viewed religious institutions as responsible for the decline of Turkey and Islam. In giving new direction to Turkey, he had to put Islam out of the public sphere and let secularism triumph. In pushing Islam to the private sphere, Ataturk�s rationale was that Islam enjoined enlightenment and freedom when not held captive by the state. Secularism, therefore, was essential in saving it. Thus, Turkey�s constitution upholds the �principle of secularism� and declares that �no one shall be allowed to exploit or abuse religion or religious feelings...for the purpose of personal or political influence�� The success of the secular state idea over an Islamic state generated secularizing reforms within the legal, educational and cultural institutions. Ataturk �removed institutions that were incompatible with the basic principles of the secular state.� Ataturk�s imposition of secularism was successful because of the historical decline of the Ottoman rule, the people�s fear of the West and his stature as a national hero. In conclusion, secularism took different forms and meanings depending on the historical, cultural and religious factors. In Europe, especially France, the history of religious strife and the divisive factor of religion made secularism an ideology for unity and fairness. In Indonesia, the goal of one nation made secularism through PANCASILA a uniting factor but ensured constant religious counter-attack. Thus, history and the indigenous identity made secularism a necessity for unity. In Turkey, secularism meant movement toward progress and salvation of country and Islam from decline. Iran and Egypt, however, associated secularism with repression and stagnation. The history of secular governments and role of Islam as a unifying ideology in both countries have discredited secularism decisively. In the end, secularism will either be a �savior� or a �disaster�. In defining its role, the differences in historical development of greed and grievances, the role of religion, the condition of the people and the country,and the leadership�s ability will make the difference. |
| -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- [i] Lecture of Professor Michael Ignatieff, September 29, 2004. [ii] Moghadam, Assaf. �A Global Resurgence of Religion?� Weatherhead Center for International Affairs Working Paper No. 03-03 (August 2003) 23. [iii] Ravitch, Norman. The Catholic Church and the French Nation, 1589-1989 (London: Routledge, 1990), 40. [iv] Ibid., 41. [v] Lecture of Professor Michael Ignatieff, October 20, 2004. [vi] Ramage, Douglas E. Politics in Indonesia: Democracy, Islam and the Ideology of Tolerance (London: Routledge, 1995) 15. [vii] Ibid., 1. [viii] Lecture of Professor Michael Ignatieff, October 20, 2004. [ix] Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3rd Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 264. [x] Ibid., 483. [xi] Constitution of Turkey, Quoted from the Lecture of Professor Michael Ignatieff, October 20, 2004. [xii] Berkes, Nyazi. The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1964), 461. [xiii] Ibid., 481. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |