University of Venda Discourses on Difference and Oppression

ABSTRACT

This paper seeks to explore the existence of many religions in South Africa. The author concerns herself with the religious story of the society and how religion has allowed people to experiment in different ways of being human. In South Africa, religion has been implicated in acts of dehumanization, which has resulted in a loss of identity amongst the Traditional African peoples of the country. This identity needs to be restored. The author believes that it may be restored through adopting and applying an Afrocentric approach to life and religion. This would assist one in finding ways of surviving in a society that seems so diverse, and in redressing what is fundamental to religion, that is, togetherness. This would seem to indicate a need for social change.

INTRODUCTION

In any given society religion always plays an important and decisive role. As such, religion has been one of the most powerful sources in history. A fundamental aspect of religion is to provide people wih a sense of identity – to prevent them from falling apart. The Latin word ‘religare,’ from which the word ‘religion’ is derived, means ‘to bind together.’ Ironically, however, within the South African context, religion has become a dividing force rather than a binding one. The author of this article, a Xhosa-speaking lady currently residing in Venda, has seen and experienced this for herself. One of the basic reasons for this negative effect of religion may be found in the multiplicity or plurality of races, cultures, and thus religions that are found in South Africa.

South African society is multi-racial, multi-cultural and multi-religious in nature. This has resulted from the fact that South Africa, like any other society, has been both the originator and receiver of a large number of cultures. There has been a tremendous migration from various nations (e.g., Dutch, Portugese, Mozambique, India) to South Africa, with people both immigrating and seeking refuge here. South Africa has accordingly experienced many demographic changes. Furthermore, these migrants introduced their own religion, which in many cases supplanted that of the indigenous people. As a result, the indigenous people lost their sense of identity, and socio-cultural communities were split as some people adhered to their own culture and religion whilst others became assimilated into that of the incoming migrants. The author believes that this sense of identity must be restored to African peoples before they can fully integrated themselves into the broader South African society. She further believes that this may be achieved by (re?)introducing its African communities to an Afrocentric perspective to life and religion.

In this paper, the author aims to explore the effects that the incoming cultures had upon the indigenous cultures of South Africa in terms of their identity and religion. She focuses particularly on the way that Christianity was used to suppress African Traditional Religion. To this end she begins by discussing the multi-racial, multi-cultural, and multi-religiuos nature of South African society. She then delineates the Afrocentric perspective from which she writes. This is followed by an examination of the religious story of South Africa, and a discussion on the African peoples’ loss of identity. The article then emphasises the necessecity of finding ways of surviving in such a diverse society so that people of different backgrounds may work together and share ideas with the aim of shaping a new society where diversity is viewed as a strength rather than a weakness. This necessitates a shift from ‘plurality’ to ‘pluralism.’ In other words, society must change from the "state of being plural" (plurality) to a "system that recognizes more than one ultimate principle" (pluralism [Concise Oxford Dictionary, 1976:850]). In this way, society will be redressing what is fundamental to religion, that is, togetherness.

THE MULTI-RACIAL, MULTI-CULTURAL AND MULTI-RELIGIOUS NATURE OF SOUTH AFRICAN SOCIETY

South African society comprises people of many races. The term ‘race’ is defined as "a group of people of common ancestry, distinguished from others by physical characteristics such as hair type, colour of eyes and skin, stature etc.," (Collins English Dictionary, 1986:1258). Thus one speaks, for example, black or white race. A multi-racial society always consists of many cultures. Culture generally refers to similarities in language, behaviour, values, traditions and religion. Nangoli (1975:16) defines culture as follows: "Culture is a language or languages people speak; the way they behave; live; relate to one another; dress; worship their God; care for their own; marry for productive purposes; name or baptize their children; regard their children; treat their elderly; bury their dead and generally the way that they carry on – a way that distinguishes them from other peoples." As a multi-cultural society, South Africa has a diversity of peoples and communities. The concept multi-cultural then refers to the diverse experiences, traditions and viewpoints of persons existing in a specific group or community.

It is important to note that religion is normally affiliated to culture. One may be tempted to argue that because South Africa has many cultures it also has many religions. And, indeed, it is so. The multi-religious nature of South Africa must be understood as comprising of religions that differ in faith, religious expression, dogma and rituals. It would be wrong to assume that people who belong to the same culture practice the same religion or rather share the same religious experience. Roux (1985:85) observes that, in many conceptualizations of the term ‘multi-cultural,’ religion is viewed as a divisive element between cultural groups. It may also be argued that in some instances religion is the only dividing factor within a single cultural group. The South African society provides many good examples of cultural groups that share the same language, traditions, and customs but who differ in their religious belief. One is bound to ask why. If a society of many races always has many cultures, common sense dictates that such a society would have many religions. How then does it come about that people of the same race and culture have different religious beliefs? What story is there to tell about religion(s) in South Africa? What happened to religions that originally formed part and parcel of one culture and one race? It is an Afrocentrist task to investigate these issues for reasons that will be explained in the following section.

AFROCENTRICITY AS A PERSPECTIVE

It is important to note the fact that Afrocentricity is a contested term. This study is based upon Asante’s understanding and use of the term. For him, Afrocentricity is the first and only reality for African people. It is a realisation of what it means to be a real African. It becomes everything an African does. As such, "Afrocentricity is our history, our mythology, our creative motif and ethos" (Asante 1988:6). A conversion to Afrocentricity becomes real as you read, listen, or talk with others who share this collective consciousness. Hence Asante refers to it as "our collective will" (ibid.). With Afrocentricity, Africans are for the first time at the centre of their own history. Once more Asante views Afrocentricity as "the most complete philosophical totalization of African being-at-the-centre of his or her own existence" (Asante 1987:125). Afrocentricity then is a rediscovery of one’s true African identity.

Needless to say, Afrocentrism denotes an African perspective on all spheres of life and academic endeavour. As such, it is a new approach to life in general. More importantly, however, Afrocentrism entails the (re)creation of an African consciousness. Whilst Afrocentrism aims to see all Africans becoming Afrocentric, it does not attempt to convert anyone by appealing to hatred, or lust, or greed or violence. Rather, it seeks to invoke a new reality and introduce a new vision. Asante (1988:2) speaks of it as a transforming agent that results in the transformation of attitudes, beliefs and behaviour. It is thus the core of human regeneration.

As a hermeneutical position, Afrocentricity finds its goal in the process of harmonisation with the aim of making the world more meaningful for those who live in it and creating spaces of understanding. For Afrocentrists, the point of departure is ‘position.’ It is important to begin somewhere in someplace with someone. You must always begin from where you are. That is, if you are an African the point of departure is African history and mythologies.

At this juncture it is worth noting that Afrocentricity is an interactive model rather than a sterile, abstract, isolated or no-contact model. It finds its strengths in the co-operative and integrative function of human experiences. This means that an Afrocentric perspective reinforces cultural and social immersion as opposed to "scientific distance" as the best approach to understand African phenomenona. Asante (1990:26) thus believes that an Afrocentrist studies every thought, action, behaviour, and value and, if it cannot be found in his/her culture and history it is dispersed with quickly.

Afrocentricity as a perspective is extremely relevant for the present study. If one, as an African, has to look at the diverse religious story of South Africa, the point of departure would be the religious story of the indigenous people, the first inhabitants of the country, the Africans. We now turn to this religious story.

THE RELIGIOUS STORY OF SOUTH AFRICA

It is important to note that our traditions of faith no longer live in isolation from one another. The map of the world in which we live cannot be colour-coded according to its Christian, Muslim and Hindu identity but each of the world’s features a mosaic of colours and textures of the whole religious reality of planet earth, suggests Lubbe (1995:163-4). This is also true with South Africa which, does not, or does not yet, have a single religious story. Politics and history so far ensured that there is still no religious equality of faiths in this country. Therefore South Africa’s religious story is far from being monolithic but diverse.

The focus on the religious story of South Africa will be limited to the African indigenous/traditional religion and Christianity’s infiltration of the country. This serves to demonstrate how Christian religion invaded, differentiated, dominated and oppressed the African culture and religion. The history of religion in South Africa has undergone different stages from pre-colonial through colonial, and post-colonial periods.

     Pre-colonial period

 
This stage is colored by the indigenous religions of the area independent of the influence of white settlement. These indigenous religions entail the religion of the Khoisan people as well as Bantu-speaking people always referred to as the African religion or African Traditional religion. African religion was not brought in from the outside; it has grown out of African soil. Many contenders of African Religion, to mention among others, Mbiti, Mndende, Phiri, Chidester and Kiernan enjoy using the term African Traditional religion. African Traditional religion as a term is used to distinguish this religion from any type of religion, since there are other religions in Africa. Since Chidester argues that the term African is always employed as a reference to a geographical location, emphasizing its indigenous nature. The term traditional is better understood as not something handed down but as something taken up as an open set of cultural resources and strategies that can be mobilized in working out the meaning and power of a human world (1992:1). The term should not be used to obscure the dynamic, changing and even inventive processes of religion in Africa. Like any religion the traditional religion has generated persistent, yet also always changing ways of being human in the world. Like every other of the world, it has its own weaknesses and strengths. Nevertheless, our concern is neither to praise or condemn African Traditional religion but simply to understand it in the context of African life.

First and foremost is to note that African Traditional Religion is existential because it permeates all aspects of life and is experienced. It serves as the foundation of all African life including the socio-economic condition. It is generated, satisfactory, moralistic to the demands of the god, monothestic, revelatory to god-ancestors, god and nature, curative, communal, vital and dynamic.

African Traditional religion has been captured in oral literature, which was mainly the responsibility of the clans, or religious congregations as referred to today. The clan has to ensure that there are good relationships between the physical and the spiritual worlds. It is the clan elder, together with the sacred people and various social levels of development that interact so as to form a healthy social contact between human beings, nature and ancestors. This holistic view of life did not separate the religious form of the social, as the social was based on the spiritual order of ancestors.

Kiernan’s view of African Traditional religion as an expression of humanism cannot be overlooked. His argument is based on the religious function of the traditional religion. Basic to the indigenous religious experience was that all people must have life, good life. For Africans therefore religion always paralleled life. Religion within the African sphere upholds and conserves moral order. More precisely, upright living is guaranteed to yield the good life. Moral deviance precipates disaster and religion articulates, mediates and services this connection. The primary concern was to promote harmony, solidarity and mutual support among people. How one conducts himself/herself towards others outside his/her rank or neighbours was important (1995:24-25). African Traditional religion therefore can be viewed as a system of ideas and practices at aimed the delivery of human welfare and human therapy. But it is equally concerned with the regulation and management of human relations, and with easing social conflict.

Colonial period

During the colonial period the societies were affected by the white settlement and expansion, ultimately to the point of succumbing to white dominance and control. The indigenous society, their way of life and religious outlook were affected in different ways. Thus foreign forces conquered the religion and culture of the African people.

Mndende (1997) views this period as the start of the African religion’s going into underground exile. The religion of the people was reduced into magic or as something that goes in cycle from birth to death. Africans were viewed as barbaric, primitive and pagan. As such, according to the missionaries, Africans knew nothing about God and for that reason, they had no religion. The missionaries refused to place African religion in a position parallel with other religions. African religion was put at a lower level compared to the religion of the people who have just immigrated to the country. This created a perception that an African is less intelligent and less spiritual that all other races that has come to the country. It is at this time that most Africans started practicing their religion secretly.

The missionaries came with a hidden agenda. They used religion as a tool to fulfill their own interests. Christianity as a religion was introduced substituting the already existing religion and was imposed to the people. Small wonder it has become the dominant world religious tradition of the region with blacks comprising the vast majority of the church members. It came in pluralistically for the style of mission’s intentions varied. Christianity was employed synonymously with the terms religion, education, and civilization. It has been integrally related to social, political as well as economic development of South Africa.

To sum up this period one can argue therefore that African religion was fashioned by three generations. The first generation was Christians by day and Africans by night. The second generation joined Christianity for education. The third generation confronted with African religion in a new way, they were confused and lost a sense of belonging.

Post-colonial period
The change of attitude towards practice and theory of African religion mark this period. The change of attitude was aggravated by the rights contained in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa Bill that, "Everyone has the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion" (1996:8). This right was responded to by the contenders of African religion who took the opportunity and came out of exile with the aim of rediscovering the African religious Heritage by including it in the school curriculum so that the upcoming generation should rediscover their lost identities. However, it is important to note that the battle towards recognition of this religion is not yet over. Firstly, the problem is internal. People belonging within the African cultural groups do not give African religion its full due. The minds of the people are still colonized. It is interesting to uncover that the very people who fail to acknowledge their religion publicly are the staunch pragmatics of this belief behind close bars. Secondly, most people who are said to be Christians are also practitioners of African Traditional religion. Reference is made of those African people at grassroots level, from rural South Africa, who forms the majority of the African people. Thirdly, although the government has given a religious right to all, that appears to be a lip service. African religion is still struggling for survival. There seems to be some kind of failure to uproot African religion hence there are still overtones about a Renaissance. African Traditional religion has not yet regained its birth-right.

THE LOST IDENTITY OF AFRICAN PEOPLE IN SOUTH AFRICA

"Can anything good come out of Africa", is a question that most black South Africans are grappling with? The European settlers convinced the people of the soil that they are inferior in every single sense of the word. Their religion was close to nothing and their culture doomed. The Africans are faced with the problem of identity. They do not know whether to identify themselves with Africa as Africans or with Europe as Africans. Thus one talks of Afro-Africans and Euro-Africans. Hence African religion has largely succumbed to Christianity. One can argue therefore that physically Africans have always been in Africa but in diaspora as far as their religion and culture is concerned. They are unlike the Jews who have been in diaspora physically but never sacrificed their Jewishness.

Even though the platform is opened for African religion, some Africans are not willing to associate with. But, it is only when we know where we come from that we will be able to know where we are going. The time is rife for us to reclaim our culture, religion and values for a better society. However this cannot be done in isolation. We belong to a society that is multi-cultural and multi-religious. This is the time for us to put aside our differences and work together towards building of a new nation. Nonetheless, putting aside our differences does not mean we forget who we are. We are who we are because we belong in a place, somewhere.

It will be unfair to discredit the western culture and Christianity all together. It has its odds and evens, so is African culture and religion. There has been always a strong feeling about the juxtaposition of African culture and modern culture. Important therefore is to take good qualities from both ends and build a better society. This highlights the fact that culture as dynamic does not discard one’s own culture. The past culture must always be reflected in the present culture.

REDISCOVERING A TRUE AND POSITIVE MEANING OF DIVERSITY

The diverse nature of the South African society due to different racial groups, cultures and religions need not be seen as a problem. It is that very same diversity that can help create a better society. Hence Nicolson (1991:71) looks at diversity as a gift. For him oneness and diversity are not opposites, which have to be kept in delicate balance, but, on the contrary, a unity created when very different people become involved with each other, to the advantage of all. Lubbe (1995:162-169) refers to this unity as a shift ‘from plurality to pluralism’. In religious terms, this shift betrays a situation where the existence of more than one religious tradition is acknowledged and some kind of relationship being observed. Thus, religious exclusivism must be condemned and religious relativism must be encouraged. Van Wyk (1997:89) argues therefore that religions or religious institutions cannot live in isolation. There must be some kind of mutual respect for and recognition for each other’s religion as well as joint cooperation and service. Thus important to religious pluralism are relationships.

Pertinent to the South African society is a need to eradicate the deep-rooted Christian arrogance that leads to ignorance of other religions and indifference to the possible contribution of their adherents to the creation of a just society. (more information).

CONCLUSION

The capacity of religion in fueling and sustaining conflict should never be underestimated. The South African religious story expose how religion contributed in creating division between people in a society in terms of race and culture so is religion. The Christian religion, which is always linked with western cultures, did not only cause a rift between black and white South Africans but also between black cultures as well. The black people of South Africa lost their culture and their identity. The paper tried to place on the agenda the importance of unity and how culture and religion can contribute towards a building of a new society.
 

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