Pikemen were chosen from the physically larger and stronger recruits, as they were required to wield the heavy and cumbersome pike. Their weapons consisted of the 12-18 foot long pike, essentially a long pole with an iron point. The difference in lengths was due to the practice of pikemen cutting down the lengths during a campaign to make them more manageable, a practice discouraged by their officers. More than one battle was lost due to the pikes of one side being shorter than the others! Many also wore a sword although this was seldom used in favor of the pike. Sergeants were armed with halberds, a shorter pike with an axe head near the point. Defensively they wore an armored corselet (front and breast plate) although by this time, they had often been discarded to allow freer movement and a combe cap, an iron helmet ridged along the top.

Musketeers provided the infantry with its firepower, armed with matchlock muskets. A muzzle loading weapon, to be loaded, gunpowder was poured down the barrel and a bullet dropped after it. Wadding was then rammed down the barrel to keep it all in place. The weapon was then primed by filling the flash pan with finer gunpowder and a short length of lighted match was inserted to ignite the powder when the trigger was pulled. An experienced musketeer may be able to fire two to three rounds a minute and hit a target at 60 yards if he was lucky. It was an unreliable weapon at best but in high winds and rain, it was almost impossible to use effectively. Many also carried swords although in close combat, the butt end of a musket was found to be more effective. Wearing no defensive armor they carried a bandoleer holding a number of powder containers, a priming flask and a bullet pouch slung over their shoulders and a length of cord used as a match hung from their belts. Headwear was mainly broad brimmed felt hats often displaying plumes. They fought in ranks three to six deep so that one could fire while the others reloaded. In front of the regiment, there would be a "forlorn hope", a loose line of musketeers acting as skirmishers.

To be effective, pikemen and musketeers needed to work together. An infantry regiment attacking another would steadily advance. The "forlorn hopes" would trade a few rounds before retiring to the flanks as the main bodies clashed. Drawing up, the musketeers would fire a few volleys before the pikemen would lower their pikes and charge forward for "the push of the pike". Musketeers would reverse their muskets and join the fray, clubbing down the enemy. If both sides held, they may draw back a few paces, trade more musket fire before repeating the process until one side broke.

An infantry regiment faced with cavalry would form a square with pikemen in the center facing outwards with lowered pikes to keep the cavalry at a distance. Musketeers would crouch two deep, below the pikes to fire on the enemy.


By the mid 17th Century, heavily armored cavalry of many different types was a thing of the past. Cavalry was made up of two main classes, harquebusiers and dragoons.

The most numerous type was the harquebusier. Originally foot soldiers armed with crossbows, as time passed, they were given firearms and mounted to become light cavalry. They were armed with a harquebus (carbine), a sword and a pair of pistols. Some Scottish cavalry were armed with lances. Defensively, they wore a light open-faced helmet and a cuirass (breast plates protecting their front and back). Underneath this was worn a heavy buff coat of leather for added protection. In the latter stages of the civil wars, the cuirass was often discarded as the buff coat was found to allow much freer movement and still provide enough protection to turn a sword blow.

Battle tactics varied according to the commander but generally they advanced three deep at a fast trot, holding their fire until at close quarters before falling on the enemy with their swords. The first line of Scottish cavalry was often lancers, who using long spears, could charge with devastating effect.

The second type of cavalry were dragoons, essentially mounted infantry. Armed with a short firelock musket that could be fired from horseback and a sword, they had the mobility of cavalry but fought on foot. In action, it was expected that every tenth dragoon would stay behind the battle to hold the horses of the others. They wore no defensive armor and were dressed similar to musketeers.

Due to their versatility, the tasks of a dragoon were wide and varied. They could be used in advance of an army to secure passes and bridges or to hold defensible positions when in retreat. In enclosed country, they fought hedge to hedge as skirmishers whereas in open country they may even be used as normal infantry.




The command of the English invasion army was initially given to England's military commander-in-chief, Lord General Thomas Fairfax. Uneasy with the preemptive nature of the campaign against their former allies, Fairfax declined the position so Parliament appointed their Lieutenant General of Cavalry, Oliver Cromwell in his place.

Cromwell, born of minor nobility, had served in Parliament before the civil wars. With no formal military training, he quickly established a formidable reputation as an aggressive master tactician, commanding the "Ironsides", a cavalry regiment noted for its discipline and tenacity. His second in command was Lt. General Fleetwood, who owed his appointment more to seniority than any real military ability. Thoughout the campaign, his roll was carried out by more able officers. Cromwell was, however, well supported by Major General John Lambert as his cavalry commander and Colonel George Monck commanding the infantry.

During the Civil War, Fairfax and Cromwell had molded the Parliamentarian army from a poorly trained and equipped militia into a well drilled and disciplined fighting force. It was comprised of veteran soldiers commanded by experienced and able officers with an excellent esprit-de-corps. At this time, the "New Model Army" was probably the finest fighting force in all of Europe.

Not all of the "New Model Army" could be sent to Scotland. Some regiments were needed to police England and Ireland against potential royalist uprisings. A force of eight regiments of horse, the 1st, 3rd, 8th, 11th, 13th, 14th, 15th, and 16th and nine regiments of infantry, the 1st, 4th, 6th, 6/12th, 10th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 17th together with two companies of dragoons were assembled. Altogether the army was made up of around 5,000 cavalry and 11,800 infantry. One of the infantry regiments had been left leaderless when its commander, Colonel Bright, resigned due to a disagreement with his General. In an interesting exercise in army democracy, Cromwell, instead of simply appointing a new commander, consulted with the regiment. Cromwell's choice, Colonel Monck, was rejected and Lambert was given the command in addition to his cavalry regiment. To ease Monck's hurt pride, a new regiment was formed from the garrisons of Newcastle and Berwick and assembled at Coldstream - the regiment was to become the famous Coldstream Guards.

Accompanying the army was an artillery train of 50 pieces and a fleet of 140 supply ships. By transporting supplies by sea, Cromwell planned to avoid relying on vulnerable overland supply lines and the need to disperse his army to forage for food.


At this time, the Scots had only a small standing army of around 6,000 regulars due to sickness and desertions. This was quickly raised to over 25,000 by the mobilization of the militia who were formed into new regiments. With some military training, they were poorly equipped and extremely poorly commanded in comparison to the English. While the English were able to absorb new recruits into existing regiments with strong morale, the Scots were forced to form whole new ones. Many were understrengh at Dunbar, their army made up of around 40 depleted regiments cobbled together to form an army.

During the campaign, the Scots proceeded to shoot themselves in the foot. Charles II, by refusing to publicly condemn his mother for her "Popery" and father for "bad counsel" had infuriated the Kirk Party. They responded by dismissing 80 veteran cavalier officers and 3,000 men not seen as enthusiastic enough in their support for the Covenant. One experienced Scottish colonel lamented that their army had been left with officers who were "nothing but useless clerks and ministers sons, who had never seen a sword, much less used one." The loss of this number of veteran troops was to have dire consequences later in the campaign.
While inferior to the English army, they were well commanded by David Leslie, the 1st Lord of Newark. A professional soldier, he had fought with the Swedish army during the 30 Years War and had led the successful Scottish cavalry attack at the Battle of Marsdon Moor and recently destroyed Montrose's army. His uncle, Alexander Leslie, another able soldier with experience in the 30 years War, advised him.

Realizing the superiority of the English army, Leslie sought to avoid open battle but rather wage a war of attrition using what he termed his two favorite allies, hunger and disease. By drawing up in a defensive line of fortifications between the coastal town of Leith and Edinburgh and destroying all food supplies to the south, he hoped to defeat the English through starvation rather than battle. While the English became frustrated, not being able to meet him in open battle, Leslie would harass them using guerrilla tactics to further weaken their resolve.