THE GUNS OF THE TAWANTINSUYA

An Alternate History Timeline

by Robert Perkins

PART FOUR: 1750-1800 A.D.

A.D. 1750--Ohio River Region explored by American frontiersman Christopher Gist. The Conestoga Wagon is developed in Pennsylvania. The neoclassical art movement begins in Europe. The Waltz becomes a popular dance form in Europe. It later becomes popular as well in the Tawantinsuya Empire.

A.D. 1750 onward--Sinchi Roca Inca II, who was intrigued by news of the recent discovery of the Hawaiian Islands, authorizes voyages of exploration in the south and Central Pacific. Tawantinsuya ships soon begin venturing out into the unknown, and many new discoveries are made. The best known Tawantinsuya explorer will be Captain Huallpa Rimachi, whose vessel, the I.T.S. Cuntur ("Condor"), will be the first to make landfall in Australia, New Zealand, the Solomon and Marshall Islands, and many other places.

A.D. 1751--Robert Clive, leading a mixed English, Tawantinsuya, and Indian force, takes Arcot in India, thus driving France out of Southern India. The first geological map of France is created by Jean Etienne Guettard. The Worcestor Royal Porcelain Company is founded in England. Diderots' first volume of the "Encyclopedie" is published. The Lightening Conductor is invented by Benjamin Franklin.

A.D. 1752--Over the past three decades, great progress has been made in the Quilombo toward the establishment of a stable regime. By 1752, intertribal violence has virtually ceased, there have been many orderly transfers of power between incoming and outgoing Great Chiefs, and a standing army (made up of men from all the tribes represented within the Quilombo, this has been a great force toward the reduction of intertribal animosity and infighting) has been created, trained, and equipped. As conditions in the Quilombo have improved, the Tawantinsuya peacekeeping force has been gradually reduced. Finally, in this year, Sinchi Roca Inca II orders the withdrawal of the last Tawantinsuya troops from the Quilombo. Security within the Quilombo is fully assumed by the armed forces of the Quilombo government. Also in this year, Benjamin Franklin invents the Lightning Rod, George Rogers Clark is born in Virginia, and Elizabeth Griscom (the future Betsy Ross) is born in Pennsylvania.

A.D. 1753--Swedish biologist Carolus Linnaeus publishes his system of plant classification. The British Museum is founded.

A.D. 1754--The Seven Years (French and Indian) War unofficially begins. The Albany Congress begins. A cartoon in Benjamin Franklin's PENNSYLVANIA GAZETTE shows a snake cut into sections, each part representing an American colony; with a caption that reads, ''Join or die.'' Benjamin Franklin writes the Albany Plan of Union. Also in this year, Italian architect Rastrelli designs the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg, Russia, and Captain Huallpa Rimachi of the I.T.S. Cuntur discovers the Solomon Islands.

A.D. 1755--The French and Indian War officially begins in America. The Lisbon Earthquake kills 30,000. The independent state of Corsica is founded by Pasquale Paoli. The DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is published by Samuel Johnson. Captain Huallpa Rimachi of the I.T.S. Cuntur discovers New Zealand, which he claims for the Tawantinsuyu Empire. However, no immediate effort to colonize the islands is made.

A.D. 1756--The Black Hole of Calcutta, 130 British and Tawantinsuya soldiers are alleged to have died there. The Seven Years War (French and Indian) officially begins in Europe. Treaty of Westminster; alliance between Britain and Prussia. The British attempt to entice the Tawantinsuya to join the Anglo Prussian alliance, but Sinchi Roca Inca II decides, for the present, to demur...the traditional enemy of the Tawantinsuya, Spain, is not currently involved in the war, and the Tawantinsuya have nothing major to gain by joining the alliance at this time. Treaty of Versailles; alliance between France and Austria. William Pitt (the Elder) becomes Prime Minister of Britain.

A.D. 1757--Frederick II "the Great" of Prussia defeats the Franco-Austrian army at Rossbach. British and Tawantinsuya East India Company forces lead by British General Robert Clive and Tawantinsuya General Pahuac Cocohuay defeat the nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in India. John Campbell invents the sextant.

A.D. 1758--The Burmese overthrow the Mons; Rangoon becomes the new capital of Burma. Captain Huallpa Rimachi of the I.T.S. Cuntur discovers the east coast of Australia and the Great Barrier Reef. As in New Zealand, he claims the land in the name of his sovereign, Sinchi Roca Inca II, but no immediate attempt at colonization will result.

A.D. 1759--Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The British capture Quebec, death of generals Montcalm and Wolfe. "Candide" written by Voltaire. The Botanical Gardens founded at Kew in London. The Russians defeat Prussian King Frederick II at Kunersdorf. King Ferdinand VI of Spain dies, and is succeeded by his brother, who reigns as King Charles III. Charles will be, although not brilliant, at least a very dedicated monarch for Spain, and on the whole, the country will prosper during his reign. However, he is not very interested in the military, and although he continues to funnel gold and silver from the New World into the higher levels of military spending begun by his predecessor, it is not always spent wisely (a good number of fine warships are added to the Spanish fleet, for example, but little money is spent on crew training; likewise, the army is expanded, but training and supply are neglected). As a result Spanish military power will not increase as much as it otherwise might have given the increased levels of expenditure being made on the military.

A.D. 1760--Death of King George II of England. His son, George III, assumes the throne. Rousseau publishes "The Social Contract." Catherine II "The Great" becomes ruler of Russia. "Tristram Shandy" by Sterne is published. Berlin is burned by the Russians

A.D. 1761--James Otis gives a four hour speech against the Writs of Assistance. Franz Josef Haydn becomes court composer to Prince Esterhazy. John Harrison invents the marine chronometer, a navigational clock for measuring longitude. Spain enters the Seven Year’s War on the side of France. The Tawantinsuyu Empire enters the war on the side of Britain.

A.D. 1762--A combined British and Tawantinsuya expeditionary force seizes Cuba, and the British seize the Philippines, from Spain. Louisiana ceded to Spain by France in an attempt to avert British control of the region. "Emile" is published by Rousseau. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart performs at the Imperial court in Vienna at age 6.

A.D. 1763--The Seven Years War ends with the Treaties of Paris and Hubertusburg. Britain returns the Philippines to Spain in exchange for Florida. Spain also wanted to get Cuba back as well, but the Tawantinsuya claim this for their own. An agreement is worked out whereby the Tawantinsuya will pay a portion of Britain’s war debt in exchange for Britain relinquishing any claims to Cuba. Canada and the territory east of the Mississippi River is ceded to Britain by France. France recognizes British and Tawantinsuya dominance in India. Also in this year, Pontiac's Rebellion flares up in the Ohio country and western Pennsylvania, where it will continue for the next three years. King George III issues a Proclamation prohibiting American settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. This is bitterly resented in the American colonies. King Augustus III of Poland dies and is succeeded by Stanislaw II. Stanislaw will prove to be the last king of Poland.

c. A.D. 1763 onward--Spanish settlement of the Louisiana Territory...recently transferred to them following the Seven Years War, proceeds at a slow but steady pace, following the lines of the various rivers which feed into the Mississippi. This brings the Spaniards into contact...and conflict...with the nomadic tribes of the Great Plains. The Spanish establish military posts at various strategically important locations throughout the region, and missions are established to try to spread Christianity among the tribesmen. They also trade with them, bartering European metalwork, alcohol and guns for buffalo hides and horses. Later, as Spanish settlement of the region increases (many of the refugees from the surrender of Santo Domingo to the Quilombo in 1815 will be given land grants in the region, and many of the Irish refugees fleeing from the Potato Famine in the 1840s will be settled there as well), so do conflicts with the natives. Complicating the situation yet further, the British Hudson’s Bay Company, which has operations in much of the northern portion of the territory, has been encouraging Indian attacks on Spanish settlements and forts as a way to keep the Spanish (and later Nuevo Espana) authorities from troubling them too much...a tactic to which the Spanish have responded in kind. By the 1840s, the region will be a powder keg, and a major war between the soldiers of Nuevo Espana (or, as it will later be known, Aztlan) and the powerful tribes of the Plains will be virtually inevitable.

A.D. 1764--German historian Johann Winckelmann publishes his "History of the Art of Antiquity." Thomas Chatterton writes the Rowley poems at the age of 12. James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny. Sugar Act passed by Parliament to offset expenses of the French and Indian War and to maintain England’s newly acquired territories. The Currency Act is passed by Parliament, which prevents the colonies from issuing their own form of legal tender. James Otis raises the issue of taxation without representation in a Boston town meeting, and later publishes "The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved." Boston merchants begin to boycott British luxury goods. The War of the Regulation, a local rebellion against corrupt taxation, begins in North Carolina. This is the first armed rebellion against British rule in America, and will last for seven years.

A.D. 1765--Joseph II becomes the Holy Roman Emperor. Robert Clive is appointed governor of Bengal in India. Sir William Blackstone begins his "Commentaries on the Laws of England." The Quartering Act, which required the colonies to provided barracks and supplies to British troops, and the Stamp Act, are passed by the British Parliament, once again stirring resentment in the American colonies. In June, the Massachussetts House of Representatives resolves to propose an inter-colonial meeting to resist the Stamp Act, and in October, the Stamp Act Congress meets in New York Also in this year, in an attempt to normalize relations and end the ongoing state of hostility between his kingdom and the Tawantinsuya, King Charles III of Spain dispatches the first official embassy to the Tawantinsuyu Empire. This is received with some caution by the Tawantinsuya, but gradually, over time, normal relations will be established. This will have major impacts later on this century.

A.D. 1766--English chemist Henry Cavendish isolates hydrogen gas for the first time. "The Nautical Almanac" provides the first practical method for determining longitude. 18 Parliament repeals the Stamp Act, but then later passes the Declaratory Act, by which Parliament asserted its right to make any laws it sees fit binding on the Colonies. Resistance to the Quartering Act breaks out in New York

A.D. 1767--The Townshend Duties go into effect. The colonists protest the new taxes by agreeing to stop importing British goods. The Mason-Dixon Line established between Maryland and Pennsylvania. Joseph Priestley invents carbonated, or "soda," water.

A.D. 1768--The first modern Circus is formed in England by Philip Astley. British explorer James Cook, who left port before news of the explorations of Captain Huallpa Rimachi reached England, explores the east coast of Australia. He establishes a competing claim to that continent on behalf of Britain. The Ottoman Turks declare war on Russia. Genoa sells its rights in Corsica to France. Joshua Reynolds becomes the first president of the Royal Academy in London. Bougainville claims the Pacific island of Tahiti for France. The first weekly numbers of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica" are issued. Richard Arkwright patents the spinning frame. British troops arrive in Boston to enforce the customs laws.

A.D. 1769--British explorer James Cook lands in New Zealand, as in Australia, establishing a competing British claim for the islands. The first working automobile in history was a steam tractor used to pull artillery for the French Army. Daniel Boone explores a route through the Cumberland Gap. James Watt patents a condenser to improve the performance of steam engines. Richard Arkwright invents a spinning frame to mechanize cotton weaving.

A.D. 1770--Captain James Cook encounters the Great Barrier Reef off Australia by running his ship the Endeavor on it, by accident. Later, he discovers Botany Bay. Prince Louis, the future king of France, marries Austrian princess Marie Antoinette. Lord North becomes Prime Minister of England. British explorer James Bruce discovers the source of the Blue Nile. Townshend Acts repealed except for the tax on tea. New York Riot over the Quartering Act. British troops fire on a crowd of American civilians in an incident which goes down in history as the Boston Massacre. Also in this year, King Charles III of Spain offers to buy Cuba from the Tawantinsuyu Empire. In exchange, he offers a large payment of gold and silver, and offers to open several key Spanish ports, both in the New World and in Spain itself, to Tawantinsuya trade vessels. Sinchi Roca Inca II, who has been somewhat dismayed by the expenses associated with holding Cuba...which has a large and resistant Spanish population...accepts the offer. Cuba is officially transferred back into Spanish hands on September 21, 1770.

A.D. 1770-1773--The Bengal Famine kills an estimated 10 million people in Bengal, the British and Tawantinsuya East India Company’s prime holding in India. With this loss of one sixth of the population, military and administrative costs mount beyond control in British administered regions in Bengal due to the ensuing drop in labour productivity, and with it, the tax base. This, combined with a stagnant trade market for company goods caused by an economic recession throughout Europe following the end of the Seven Years War, threatens to drive the company into bankruptcy.

A.D. 1771--Gustav III succeeds his father as king of Sweden. The Battle of Alamance, in which the forces of the Regulators (rebels against corrupt British taxation in western North Carolina) are decisively defeated by the forces of North Carolina Governor Lord William Tryon. End of the War of the Regulation.

A.D. 1772--British explorer James Cook crosses the Antarctic Circle and circumnavigates Antarctica. The First Partition of Poland. American artist Benjamin West paints "The Death of Wolfe." Attack on the "Gaspee," a British customs schooner that was burned by Rhode Island colonists off Namquit Point. Sam Adams pressures the Boston Town Meeting to set up the "Committee of Correspondence" to state the colonies’ rights and grievances. John Sevier organizes independent republic of Watauga in Tennessee

A.D. 1773--Pope Clement XIV suppresses the Jesuits. Calcutta becomes the capital of British India. Don Cossack Yemelian Pugachev leads the Peasant's Revolt in Russia. To save the bankrupt British East India Company, Parliament passes the Tea Act. In response, the Boston Town Meeting passes resolutions against the Tea Act. In December, the Boston Tea Party takes place. 342 chests of tea are dumped into Boston Harbor by colonists disguised as Indians. Parliament also passes the India Act of 1773, which transfers unprecedented control over British and Tawantinsuya East India Company holdings and operations in India to the British Government. The Tawantinsuya are not consulted during or after the passage of this bill, and are incensed by this "high-handed" treatment at the hands of their erst-while ally.

A.D. 1774--King Louis XV dies. His son, Louis XVI, becomes King of France. Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji ends the Russo-Turkish War. British clergyman and scientist Joseph Priestley identifies a gas which he called "dephlogisticated air," later known as oxygen. The British government appoints Warren Hastings to be Governor-General of India. The Tawantinsuya are not consulted on this choice, and relations between the two powers...already strained because of what the Tawantinsuya perceive as "high-handed" British behavior with regard to their joint Indian venture, are further damaged. The Coercive Acts are passed by Parliament. Boston Port is closed by Parliament until the tea destroyed in the Boston Tea Party is paid for by those responsible. The Quebec Act grants the French Catholics of Quebec the right to freedom of Religion among other assurances, and is seen as an attempt by the British government to pit the French Canadians against the rest of the American colonists. The First Continental Congress opens for business. "Declaration and Resolves" by the First Continental Congress.

A.D. 1775--War between the British and Tawantinsuya East India Company and Marathas in India. Alexander Cummings invents the flush toilet. Jacques Perrier invents a steam ship. New England Restraining Act: Parliament passed an act banning trade between the New England colonies and any other country besides Great Britain.

A.D. 1775-1780--The American Revolution. A year by year summary of major events of
the Revolution follows.

--1775: In April, the British commander at Boston, General Thomas Gage, receives
intelligence that the colonists are massing arms and ammunition at Concord,
Massachusetts. An expedition is sent out to destroy these stores, but meets with
resistance. Battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill—beginning of American
Revolution. Later that year, Boston is placed under siege by a colonial army. This army,
however, lacking artillery, has no means to force the British to abandon the town, and an
uneasy stalemate results. The Continental Congress, when it meets in May 1775, selects
Artemas Ward to be the commander-in-chief of the newly christened Continental Army.
Later that same month, Colonels Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, leading colonial
militia, capture Fort Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain in upper New York, and with it,
over 70 pieces of heavy artillery. Artemas Ward sends Henry Knox to Ticonderoga, with
orders to bring this artillery to Boston. In June, another American army, under the
command of Brigadier General Richard Montgomery, is ordered to invade Canada and
capture Montreal, which is accomplished in early November. Benedict Arnold attempts
to convince General Artemas Ward to allow him to lead a supporting expedition which
will approach Quebec through the Maine wilderness, but is refused. Instead, in what
turns out to be one of the few good decisions Ward will make while commander-in-chief,
Arnold is sent with more troops to support Montgomery’s drive up the St. Lawrence.
Arnold’s force of 1,500 men arrives at Montreal in fairly good condition (in OTL, the trek
through the Maine wilderness cost Arnold almost half of his force, and the remainder
were almost dead when they arrived outside of Quebec), and unites with that of
Montgomery shortly after the latter captures said city. The combined force then marches
up the St. Lawrence and arrives before Quebec in early December. Under cover of a
snowstorm, the Americans assault the British works protecting the city on December 31,
and with their extra manpower, manage to defeat the British garrison and capture the city.
Both Montgomery and Arnold are severely wounded...Montgomery will succumb to his
wounds a week later, and Arnold will walk with a limp for the rest of his life. But
Canada, with the exception of the British bases in Nova Scotia...is now under American
control.

--1776: In January, Henry Knox arrives iin Boston with fifty cannon, which had been
dragged by sled in the dead of winter over 300 miles from Fort Ticonderoga. Also in this
month, Brigadier General David Wooster is sent to take command at Quebec, relieving
the wounded Benedict Arnold. Arnold is promoted to Brigadier General and ordered to
take command at Montreal while he recuperates from his wounds.

In March, the cannon from Ticonderoga are positioned atop Dorchester Heights,
overlooking Boston. The Americans now have cannon...but no powder for them. The
British don’t know this, however, and they evacuate Boston. General Gage sails with his army to Halifax, Nova Scotia, where they await reinforcements. Those reinforcements, when they arrive, will be accompanied by Gage’s replacement as commander...Lord William Howe.

In May, General John Burgoyne arrives from England with 4,000 troops outside Quebec.
American General Wooster, although heavily outnumbered, enjoys the advantages of
Quebec’s strong fortifications, and Burgoyne does not launch an immediate assault, but
instead, begins siege operations. In late June, Brigadier General Benedict Arnold, having
been reinforced at Montreal and now in command of over 2,000 men, launches a surprise
attack on Burgoyne’s army outside Quebec. General Wooster sallies forth with a
supporting attack, and the overconfident Burgoyne is decisively defeated and driven away
from his lines of supply on the St. Lawrence, with American forces and French Canadian
militia in pursuit. Among those killed in the engagement are two British Colonels,
Horatio Gates and Charles Lee, who are killed while trying to rally their broken regiments
for a counterattack.

In June 1776, a British force under Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker attempts to
seize Charleston, South Carolina. Patriot forces fighting in a fort made of sand and
palmetto logs on Sullivan’s Island, commanded by Brigadier General William Moultrie,
withstand the bombardment of the British fleet, which withdraws. Also in this month,
incited by royal agents, the Cherokee attack all along the Southern frontier. These
attacks, and Patriot counterattacks against the Cherokee, will continue for the next ten
months.

In July, the American Declaration of Independence is signed at Philadelphia. This
document is authored primarily by John Adams and edited by Benjamin Franklin and
several others. Adams, being a lawyer, cites English law and custom...particularly the
Magna Carta, the Bill of Rights, and similar legislation passed during the English Civil
War and the Glorious Revolution in the previous century, as well as Blackstone’s "Commentaries on the Laws of England," to make a case that Parliament and the King are violating the rights of the citizens of the colonies, who therefore have no choice but to sever their political bonds with Britain and declare independence, just as
Parliament itself rose up against the King during the English Civil War. There is no
mention of "inalienable rights," and the concept that "all men are created equal" (with
which Adams personally disagrees) is not expressed in the document. Meanwhile, later
that month, Burgoyne’s army is brought to battle in the wilderness about 40 miles west of
Quebec. After a very sanguine struggle, his force is once again defeated. Burgoyne, his
supplies running low and his army being driven ever further away from his base,
surrenders his army on July 31.

In mid-August, the main British Army, heavily reinforced with British troops and Hessian
mercenaries, sails from Halifax, Nova Scotia, under Lord Howe and arrives outside New
York City. The British occupy Long Island and New York City virtually unopposed, as
Continental commander-in-chief General Artemas Ward, having failed to recognize the
vital strategic importance of the place, had not moved his army from the Boston area to
defend it.

In early September, the British strike inland from their new base at New York City, and
moving rapidly across central New Jersey in a lightning campaign, they cross the
Delaware River and by the end of that month are at the gates of Philadelphia. The
Continental Congress hastily evacuates to York, Pennsylvania (where, shortly after their
arrival, they learn of the great victory won by Arnold in Canada, and promote him to
Major General).

On October 2, the British march into Philadelphia. The Continental Army, belatedly
brought south by General Ward, arrives in the vicinity a few days later, and is severely
mauled by the greatly superior British force (which numbers over 30,000 against less than
20,000 for the Americans) at the Battle of Norristown, Pennsylvania on October 12.
More by luck than anything else, Ward manages to get away with the bulk of his mangled
army and retreat toward York, Pennsylvania, arriving there before the end of October.
The British, with winter rapidly approaching, decide the campaigning season is over and
go into winter quarters in various hamlets surrounding Philadelphia. The American
rebels, Lord Howe reasons, are beaten. He can mop up the remains...later.

In early November, the Continental Congress removes Artemas Ward as
commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, replacing him with the hero of the
Canadian campaign...Benedict Arnold. Arnold is, however, still in Canada, and it will be
a while before he can get to Pennsylvania to assume command. In the interim, command
of the Continental Army is given to an officer who had been one of few bright spots in
the army’s recent debacle outside Philadelphia...Brigadier General Nathaniel Greene.
Greene is promoted to Major General. He will spend the next month reorganizing and
refitting his shattered army outside York.

In December, Benjamin Franklin is appointed as America’s ambassador to the court of
King Louis XVI of France. On December 25, newly promoted Major General Nathaniel
Greene leads the Continental Army...now consisting of less than 5,000 men, the rest
having deserted in the interim following the defeat at Norristown...on a daring raid
against the winter camp of a brigade of Hessian mercenaries who are encamped near
Chester, Pennsylvania. The Hessians are completely surprised, and after a brisk fight,
surrender to the Americans. General Howe sends out a force in pursuit of the Americans.
However, Greene mauls their advance guard near Lancaster, Pennsylvania on December
31, and the British retreat back to their camps near Philadelphia.

--1777: On January 2, Major General Greeene returns triumphantly to York with this
prisoners and captured stores. On January 5, Major General Benedict Arnold arrives in
Philadelphia, where he accepts his promotion to Lieutenant General and assumes
command of the Continental Army. Arnold inherits a very desperate situation. Despite
the morale boost given by the recent victories under Greene, which has finally slowed the
rate of desertion in the army, the army is still melting away as cold, hunger, and sickness
kill off the remaining loyal troops in their miserable camps outside York. The only hope
the army has is that some of it will be left when the Spring thaws come.

March 1777: With the approach of Spring, Patriot recruits begin trickling into the
Continental Army’s encampments outside York. The British, too, begin making ready
for the new campaigning season. Parliament was shocked by the loss of Canada and the
surrender of Burgoyne’s army the previous year, and has made the recapture of Canada a
major priority. General Sir Henry Clinton has been given command of an army of
10,000 men...mostly German mercenaries...which is being readied in English ports for a
new attack on the province. This will deprive Sir William Howe of much needed
reinforcements for his campaign in Pennsylvania.

In May 1777, the Cherokee sue for peace with the Patriots. A treaty is signed in which
the Cherokee give up all of their lands east of the Appalachian Mountains. The British
Army of General Sir Henry Clinton arrives outside Quebec. The local American
commander, Major General David Wooster, despite being greatly outnumbered, once
again puts up a stout defense, and a major British assault on Quebec’s fortifications is
beaten back with heavy losses. Clinton orders siege operations to begin. Meanwhile in
Pennsylvania, General Howe, who has learned that he will not be getting the
reinforcements he feels he needs for the upcoming campaign, decides to proceed anyway.
However, he does so in a half-hearted fashion, and this gives the American
commander-in-chief, Benedict Arnold, time to prepare to meet him. Arnold, by this
time, has an army of 12,000 men ready to meet the British attack. He orders all bridges
across the Susquehanna River burned, with the exception of one which is located in
highly favorable defensive terrain between the towns of Lancaster and York, and has his
men build strong earthwork fortifications defending the approaches to this bridge. If
Howe attacks, Arnold will have all the advantage.

June 1777: In Canada, the siege of Quebec continues. Meanwhile, on June 5, General Sir
William Howe’s British Army, almost 20,000 strong (Howe’s original 30,000 man force
has been not only whittled down by losses in battle, but also by disease, and the need to
leave garrisons at New York, Philadelphia, and throughout New Jersey), approaches the
fortifications held by the Continental Army west of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Surveying
the strong defensive positions, Howe might have been given pause, but, remembering the
poor performance of the American army at Norristown the previous year, he holds the
fighting qualities of these "colonial rabble," as he calls them, in contempt, and he orders
an assault for the next day. On the morning of June 6, the British march out in perfect
formation, drums and fifes mockingly playing "Yankee Doodle," and are met with
withering fire from the American fortifications. Thus begins the fight that will become
known as the Battle of Arnold’s Bridge. The British make no less than five assaults that
day, all of them beaten back with horrendous losses. When the smoke clears, almost
6,000 British and Hessian soldiers lie dead or wounded on the fields in front of the
American lines, while less than 1,000 Americans have been killed or wounded in the
fight. Lord Howe orders a retreat back toward Philadelphia for the next morning.
Benedict Arnold, however, has his own plans, and orders a night assault on the British
camp. While the American assault is disorganized, as any night assault by inexperienced
troops must be, the very fact that they would try such a thing, combined with the shock of
the huge losses suffered earlier that day, causes panic to break out in the British ranks.
Thousands of seasoned redcoats and professional German mercenaries, many men casting
away their muskets to lighten their load, are soon fleeing, as fast as their legs can carry
them, east toward Philadelphia and safety. It is, quite possibly, the worst military defeat
in British history. Arnold orders pursuit, but his jubilant but hungry and ragged troops
stop to pillage the British camp, and Arnold cannot restore order in his own ranks until
mid-morning the next day. By this time, his scouts report that Lord Howe has restored
order to his own army, which is now retreating in good order toward Philadelphia.
Arnold orders his army to follow. Another battle is fought near Chester, Pennsylvania on
June 12, when Arnold’s advance guard catches up with Howe’s rear guard, but the
Americans are repulsed, and Howe makes it back to Philadelphia with the bulk of his
army still intact. Arnold retires to Lancaster, where he gives his army a desperately
needed reorganization and gathers more recruits. The two armies sit out the rest of the
month in relative inactivity.

July 1777: In Canada, the siege of Quebec continues. Meanwhile, in Pennsylvania,
Benedict Arnold’s army has received a flood of recruits since news of the victory at
Arnold’s Bridge got out. By mid July, he is in command of a force almost 30,000 strong,
and growing daily. Most of these are inexperienced militia, of course, but when Lord
Howe learns, via his spies, that Arnold is possessed of such a force, he makes the
decision to abandon Philadelphia. The British Army crosses the Delaware River into
New Jersey on July 28.

In August 1777, British and Loyalist agents stir up an uprising among the Iroquois which
causes much damage in upstate New York. It also prevents a Patriot relief column,
which had been gathering at Fort Ticonderoga, from moving north into Canada to the
relief of Major General Wooster’s besieged force at Quebec. As a result, Wooster is
forced to surrender Quebec later that month. However, the Americans still control
Montreal. On August 3, Benedict Arnold rides, at the head of the Continental Army, into
Philadelphia. The Continental Congress returns to Philadelphia to York on August 20.
By that time Lord Howe, having abandoned New Jersey except for a few outposts
guarding the approaches to New York, has returned to his base at New York City, where
he sends a message to London desperately requesting reinforcement.

In September 1777, General Sir Henry Clinton advances south from Quebec toward
Montreal with 6,000 men (leaving a garrison of 2,000 at Quebec...the remainder of his
original 10,000 men force were lost during the siege of Quebec). The American
commander at Montreal, Philip Schuyler, finding himself heavily outnumbered, abandons
the city and retreats to Fort Ticonderoga. Clinton goes into winter quarters at Montreal
and Quebec by the end of September, ending this year’s fighting in the far north. The
American occupation of Canada is at an end. Meanwhile, General Benedict Arnold leads
his army into New Jersey. He approaches New York, but decides an assault on the
British defenses would be impractical. Instead, he contents himself with attacking the
British outposts in New Jersey, which he captures before the end of September. All of
New Jersey is back in American hands.

In October 1777, the Continental Army, which is not strong enough to attack the British
base at New York, goes into winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey. The British
Army at New York, not capable of attacking the Americans, does the same. In upper
New York, the combined American forces at Fort Ticonderoga (Schuyler’s force from
Montreal and the remains of the Quebec relief column) go out on a devastating raid
against the villages of the Iroquois. Under the command of Schuyler, the Americans
burn every village, destroy all stored crops and livestock, and kill every warrior they can
find. By the time this raid ends in early December, the power of the Iroquois is forever
broken, and the pitiful remnants are fleeing to the safety of British Canada.

In November 1777, King Louis XVI of France signs a treaty of alliance with the United
States of America. French arms, uniforms, gunpowder, and other supplies are soon
pouring into the colonies, and a French expeditionary force is being readied. General Sir
Henry Clinton is named British Governor of Canada. Also in this month, the Continental Congress passes the Articles of Confederation, and submits it to the States for ratification.

--1778: In early January, General Howe iis removed as commander of the British forces at
New York, and replaced by General Charles Cornwallis. Cornwallis is an aggressive
commander, and his promotion will mark a change in British strategy. Arriving with the
orders promoting him to command at New York are reinforcements of 15,000 men,
giving him an effective force of almost 30,000. Cornwallis plans to take the bulk of this
army to attack and secure the Southern colonies, which are seen as an easy target due to
their smaller populations and perceived loyalist leanings. He also asks Governor Clinton of Canada to support his operations by recapturing Fort Ticonderoga and threatening upstate New York. Clinton agrees. Meanwhile, at Morristown, the coming of winter has seen the militia go home, and the American Continental army dwindles to less than 10,000 men.

On February 23, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben arrives at the American winter
encampment at Morristown, New Jersey. Von Steuben is an experienced Prussian
military officer, and has been recruited by Benjamin Franklin to provide professional
training to the Continental Army...something which, up to now, it has lacked. As the
Prussian Army is widely regarded as the best in the world, his services are gratefully
accepted by General Arnold, and over the next several months, under Von Steuben’s
tutelage, the Continental Army is transformed into a professional, disciplined fighting
force.

In March, Lord Cornwallis takes ship with 20,000 men and sails for Savannah, Georgia.
The British fleet arrives there on March 20, and the British army disembarks. The city
surrenders with little resistance. Lord Cornwallis orders his army to march overland to
Charleston, South Carolina, which he plans to invest by land while the fleet bombards it
by sea.

With the arrival of spring, recruits begin to fill up the ranks of the Continental Army at Morristown. By the end of April, General Arnold has almost 15,000 men. However, they still have to be trained and equipped, so Arnold is in no position to immediately commence operations. On April 5, the British army arrives outside Charleston, South Carolina, the fleet having arrived off the harbor on April 1. The town is placed under siege. Also in April, Governor Henry Clinton leads a force of 4,000 men south from Montreal. The force lays siege to Fort Ticonderoga, which falls by the end of the month. The local American commander in the region, Philip Schuyler, sends messages to General Arnold desperately pleading for units of the Continental Army to be sent north to face Clinton, but Arnold recognizes Clinton’s move for the diversion it is, and sends only a token force, instructing Schuyler to raise as much militia as he can and to harass Clinton’s force in the forests if the British advance south from Ticonderoga.

On May 15, General Benjamin Lincoln, commander of the American forces at
Charleston, South Carolina, surrenders the town to the British. Meanwhile, the French are making themselves felt, indirectly...French naval and army forces have been attacking British possessions in the West Indies and India, causing much concern among the British leadership in London. Therefore, to General Cornwallis’s consternation, shortly after the surrender of Charleston he receives orders from London to detach a force of 7,000 men, which will go, along with most of the British naval vessels supporting Cornwallis’s campaign, to the West Indies. Combined with losses suffered in the recent campaign from both disease and battle, Cornwallis is left with less than 10,000 men. By the end of May, however, Arnold’s force in New Jersey has increased to over 20,000 trained men. The balance of power is beginning to shift in favor of the Americans.

In June, British General Cornwallis, leaving a small garrison at Charleston, moves inland with the aim of taking South and North Carolina completely out of the war. He advances rapidly, finding almost no opposition (the main American Army in the south having been surrendered at Charleston) except for that of various guerrilla bands, and by the end of the month has occupied most of the South Carolina back-country. Meanwhile, American General Benedict Arnold decides on a bold plan. Leaving a token force to keep watch on the 8,000 British soldiers at New York, Arnold leads the main Continental Army south to confront Cornwallis.

In July, Cornwallis leads his army...now further reduced by casualties and the need to leave garrisons in the South Carolina back-country...into North Carolina. It is there that he collides with Benedict Arnold and the main Continental Army. In a battle fought on July 17, 1778 just south of Raleigh, North Carolina, Cornwallis’s heavily outnumbered force is severely mauled and forced to retreat. Benedict Arnold pursues his beaten enemy, and on July 29 catches Cornwallis again as his army is waiting to cross the rain-swollen Broad River at Cherokee Ford, near a place called The Cowpens (because cattle are corralled here during annual round-ups by local farmers). Cornwallis is forced into fighting with his back to the Broad River, and his army puts up a stout fight, causing many American casualties. But Arnold’s larger army pulls off a double envelopment of Cornwallis’s force, which is virtually destroyed. Only a few British and Hessian troops who have the presence of mind to take off their heavy coats, throw away their muskets and other equipment, and swim across the river, escape. Among the dead is a dashing British dragoon officer named Banastre Tarleton, and General Cornwallis himself is captured. Also in this month, Colonel George Rogers Clark leads an expedition from Virginia into the Illinois Country (the region north of the Ohio River and south of the Great Lakes, which is claimed by Virginia but had been assigned to Canada in one of the Acts of Parliament which sparked the Revolution). He captures the town of Kaskaskia on July 4, and the important post at Vincennes shortly afterward. Also in this month, Spain declares war on Britain and signs an alliance with the United States.

In August, General Arnold detaches a force of 5,000 men from the main Continental Army and places it under the command of General Nathaniel Greene, and then takes the bulk of the Continental Army back to New Jersey. Greene is charged with retaking the South Carolina back-country, as well as the cities of Charleston and Savannah, and restoring the South to Patriot control. Greene’s operations will consume the next year, as Savannah and Charleston are placed under siege and several British forts in the back-country are reduced. But by late 1779, the South is back under complete Patriot control.

In September, after learning of the disaster of the Battle of Cherokee Ford, the British government calls in Apichu Cusi, the Tawantinsuya ambassador, in an attempt to use the traditional Tawantinsuya animosity toward Spain to persuade that power to enter the war on their side. From the British standpoint, this makes a great deal of sense, because if the Tawantinsuya can take over most of the burden of defending the Caribbean, Britain can redeploy most of it’s troops and ships back to the North American colonies to restore the situation there. But, unbeknownst to the British, the efforts of Spanish King Charles III have borne fruit, and relations between Spain and the Tawantinsuya have grown decidedly less unfriendly over the past decade. So, to the dismay of the British government, Apichu Cusi reiterates his government’s determination to remain neutral in the conflict, and the British are left to their own devices. Also in September, British forces lead by Henry Hamilton recapture Vincennes while George Rogers Clark is back in Virginia.

In October, George Rogers Clark learns of the fall of Vincennes, and begins gathering troops and supplies for a new expedition to recover the Ohio Country. Due to a variety of factors, this will not be ready for some time, however. Henry Clinton, learning of Cornwallis’s defeat at Cherokee Ford, withdraws with most of his force from Fort Ticonderoga and returns to Montreal, leaving only a token garrison at the Fort. Philip Schuyler, reinforced by additional Continental units sent by General Arnold, soon lays siege to the fort. General Arnold and the Continental Army go into winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey.

In November, Fort Ticonderoga surrenders to American forces under Philip Schuyler. For all intents and purposes, the war in the north is over. The British, fully consumed with fighting French and Spanish forces in the Caribbean and India, are not able to significantly reinforce the garrisons in New York and Canada, and these garrisons are not strong enough to do more than hold onto the territory they now hold. The Americans, who, without naval support, lack the capability to cut off New York from supply, cannot take that city, and cannot launch an attack into Canada without possibly allowing the British in New York the ability to break out toward Philadelphia once more. So an uneasy stalemate results.

And so the war in North America gradually winds down. In the aftermath of the disaster at Cherokee Ford, the government of Lord North lost a lack of confidence vote in the British Parliament, and North was succeeded by Charles Watson-Wentworth, Marquess of Rockingham. Rockingham was an opponent of the war in America, and immediately opened negotiations with the Americans aimed at ending the war. The main sticking point is the status of the Ohio country and Michigan. But with the recapture of the Ohio country by George Rogers Clark in early 1779, the British negotiating position becomes much less tenable. The entry of the Netherlands into the war in mid-1779 made the British even more desperate to disengage from America, and a peace agreement is finally signed in January 1780. The independence of the United States is recognized, and all territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes is ceded to Americans, except for Florida. The American Revolution is over.

A.D. 1777--Christianity introduced in Korea.

A.D. 1778-1779-War of Bavarian Succession.

A.D. 1778--Sinchi Roca Inca II dies, and is succeeded by his son, who reigns as Auqui Amaru Inca.

A.D. 1779--Samuel Crompton invents the spinning mule.

A.D. 1779-1781--The Quilombo Conquest of the Guianas. The declarations of war on Britain by France, Spain, and the Netherlands have been watched with great interest by the government of the Quilombo. French and Dutch slaveholding colonies lie on the northern frontier of the Quilombo, and the people of the Quilombo have warm feelings toward the British, who are the only major European power to have abolished slavery in their colonies, and also, since the foundation of the South Sea Company, have been the only European country to do any major trading with the Quilombo. Accordingly, in late 1779, the government of the Quilombo...against the advice of the Tawantinsuya...declare war on France and the Netherlands. Quilombo armies invade the French and Dutch Guianas, where they meet unexpectedly stiff resistance...the white population of these colonies remembers, all too well, the massacres in Brazil which are, even now, less than a century old. But neither France or the Netherlands, both of whom are now involved in a struggle with Britain, have resources to spare for the defense of what are considered relatively valueless colonies. Despite their best efforts, the French and Dutch colonists are gradually defeated over the course of the next year and a half. By March 1781, both colonies are under full Quilombo control. In the aftermath, many Europeans are massacred, despite protests by the Tawantinsuya and Britain...the Quilombo has little sympathy for slave owners, and cares little for it’s international reputation. Those lucky enough to escape board ship and return to France and the Netherlands.

A.D. 1780-1783--The American Civil War. In the aftermath of the victorious conclusion of it’s war of Independence, the newly independent "United States of America" is in serious trouble. The Articles of Confederation...which cannot go into force until ratified by all 13 States...have still not been ratified. And since the war has now ended...and with it, the immediate threat which bound the colonies together...it looks like the Articles may never be ratified. The Continental Congress lacks even the limited authority which the Articles would have given it, and there is a major problem...the Continental Army. None of the army has been paid in over a year, and some soldiers have not received pay in as many as six years, but soldiers have been kept fighting by patriotism...and by promises of backpay and pensions to be paid after the war. But the Continental Congress has no authority to levy taxes, and the States are balking on their earlier agreements to fund the promises of the Congress to Continental troops. Dark threats of mutiny have rumbled among the army since major fighting ended over a year ago, and these have spread from the rank and file to the officer corps itself. And, unlike in OTL, these have found a receptive ear in the Commander-in-Chief, Benedict Arnold. Arnold has his own reasons to despise the Continental Congress. He has been dogged for years by unproven accusations of embezzlement of funds used for his early campaigns in Canada, and has had an ongoing dispute with Congress over reimbursement of his wartime expenses. He also feels that his contributions to the achievement of American independence are not appreciated (he petitioned Congress for promotion from Lt. General to full General following the decisive victory at Cherokee Ford, and was rebuffed). And so, when he is approached by a group of officers who urge him to "step forward as the savior of a disorganized civil society and accept the crown from the hand of his faithful soldiers," Arnold accepts. He leads the Continental Army to Philadelphia, arrests those members of the Continental Congress who have not already fled the city, and in a ceremony held on June 1, 1780, is crowned as Benedict, King of the Americans.

But Arnold’s action does not go unchallenged. Most of Congress fled at the approach of the army to Philadelphia, and headed south, where the army of Nathaniel Greene was encamped near Charleston, South Carolina. Greene agrees that Arnold’s action is "beyond the pale," and agrees to "fight for American liberty" against "the usurper." Furthermore, most of the individual State governments denounce Arnold’s action, and many of Arnold’s own troops are shocked by Arnold’s action and desert. But several States pledge loyalty to the new King Benedict, and enough of his troops remain with him that he still has a powerful military force. The result is three years of civil war.

In the end, Arnold is defeated, captured, and hanged. But the Civil War, as it comes to be called, has some important effects. The party within the Continental Congress which wishes for a more centralized government is given a major boost...after all, they argue, if the Congress had been allowed to levy taxes and, in general, act like a central government in the first place, Arnold’s rebellion might never have occurred. In late 1783, the Continental Congress removes the Articles of Confederation from consideration by the States, and instead, submits a much stronger document for ratification. Only a majority of the States are required to ratify this document in order for it to become law, even among those which do not ratify (Several States which had been loyal to King Benedict had been defeated and subjugated in the recent civil war. And in the aftermath of the civil war, Congress did not immediately disband Greene's army. The obvious threat that army posed prevented any holdouts from attempting to secede or refuse to recognize the Constitution as binding).  The Constitution, as it is called, provides for a strong central government...much stronger than the OTL document of the same name. The independence, rights, and powers of the States are severely curtailed, and the powers of the federal government are increased greatly.  Key provisions of the new document are as follows...

With the State Legislatures frightened by the spectre of more rebellions like Arnold’s (and by the threat posed by Greene's still-undisbanded army, which is loyal to Congress), the document is ratified by the required number of States by the end of the next year.

A.D. 1780--Gordon Riots in London. Benjamin Franklin invents bi-focal eyeglasses.

A.D. 1781--William Herschel discovers the Planet Uranus. Spain...whose military forces are, despite the faults of King Charles III’s administration, much better than in OTL at this period...captures Gibraltar.

A.D. 1782--Treaty of Salbai ends the war between the Marathas and the British and Tawantinsuya East India Company in India. Treaty of Versailles ends fighting between the French, Spanish, Dutch, and British. Freed of the need to maintain forces in America, the British have more than held their own against the powers allied against it, and the treaty generally makes few territorial revisions. Spain does somewhat better than in OTL, and gains the most of all the warring powers...it regains Florida, as well as the island of Minorca, and perhaps most significantly, it keeps Gibraltar.

A.D. 1783--A new India Act is passed by the British Parliament. This act gives even greater control over the holdings of the British and Tawantinsuya East India Company in India to the British government. Once again, the Tawantinsuya are not consulted, and this will be the final straw which finally breaks the long-standing British and Tawantinsuya alliance in India. Also in this year, Joseph and Jacques Montgolfier demonstrate the first successful hot-air balloon flight. Louis Sebastien demonstrates the first parachute. Henry Cort of England invents the steel roller for steel production.

A.D. 1784--Enraged by the British India Act of 1783, Auqui Amaru Inca declares the dissolution of the British and Tawantinsuya East India Company. Having just ended a very costly and expensive conflict, Britain is anxious to avoid war, and negotiations between Britain and Tawantinsuyu soon result in the division of India into separate spheres of influence. The British retain control of Bengal and Bombay, and an exclusive sphere of influence which includes all of northern India north of the Narmada and Mahanadi Rivers. The Tawantinsuya receive Madras and an exclusive sphere of influence over the region south of the Krishna River. The region between these two lines...exclusive of Bombay...will be considered a region of overlapping spheres of influence, and not assigned to either power. Also in this year, Andrew Meikle patents the first threshing machine, and the new U.S. Constitution is ratified and becomes law.

A.D. 1785--"Daily Universal Register" (Times of London) publishes 1st issue. Edmund Cartwright invents the power loom. The first Presidential Election under the new U.S. Constitution is held. Nathaniel Greene is elected as the first President of the United States, with Alexander Hamilton as his Vice President. Greene and Hamilton will establish the early origins of the Federal Bureaucracy, the governmental organizations which will proliferate to regulate nearly every aspect of American life over the next few decades.  Also in this year, the U.S. Congress passes the Land Act of 1785, intended to resolve disputes between the States over the Western Territories, gained as a result of the treaty which ended the War of Independence. It stipulates that States which have claims to western territory may keep those territories, provided there is no competing claim by another State to the same territory. Thus Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia all retain title to vast territories extending to the Mississippi River. However, the land north of the Ohio River and south of the Great Lakes, which is disputed among several States, are to be ceded to the Federal Government, which will administer them for the common benefit of all the States. This land is organized as the Northwest Territory. The Federal Government soon begins to sell off the land to speculators as a means of raising revenue. Of course, nobody bothers to consult the native inhabitants of the region, and resentment among the various Native American tribes quickly reaches a boiling point as the land speculators sell the lands to white settlers, who begin pouring into the region and evicting the natives from their lands. Later that year, the Miami Confederacy...a powerful alliance of tribes including the Miami, Huron, Wyandot, Shawnee, Pottawatomi, Ottawa, Ojibway, Delaware, the Six Nations of the Iroquois (Mohawk, Cuyuga, Onondaga, Seneca, Tuscarora, and Oneida), the Kickapoo, the Kaskaskia, and the Wabash Confederacy...is formed for the stated purpose of resisting American expansion in the Ohio Country.

A.D. 1786--Mozart's opera "The Marriage of Figaro" premiered in Vienna. Prussian King Friedrich II (The Great) dies. John Fitch invents a steamboat.

A.D. 1787--Assembly of Notables dismissed. Britain acquires Sierra Leone. The planetary satellites of Uranus, Oberon and Titan, were discovered by Herschel.

A.D. 1788--London's Daily Universal Register becomes the Times. First convicts transported from Britain to Botany Bay, Australia. The Tawantinsuya, who also have a claim to Australia, protest. In order to solidify Tawantinsuya claims to these lands, Auqui Amaru Inca orders the preparation of colonization expeditions to both Australia and New Zealand.  Death of King Charles III of Spain. His successor, Charles IV, is not a man of his father’s mettle, and Spain will suffer under his reign. However, he does continue his father’s policy of improving relations with Tawantinsuyu, and this will have important consequences later on.

A.D. 1788 onward--The colonization of Australia by the British and the Tawantinsuya is having devastating impacts on the native aboriginal people of the continent. Epidemics of various diseases such as smallpox, chicken pox, influenza, and measles have decimated most of the more populous communities. The introduction of alcohol has proved almost as devastating. Last but not least, conflict with settlers over scarce water resources and land has also resulted in armed clashes between the two groups, with the natives almost always coming out on the losing side. By the 1820s, many aboriginal communities have been totally exterminated, and most others in the eastern half of the continent are in serious trouble.

A.D. 1789--The French Revolution begins. The Third Estate in France declared itself a national assembly, and undertook to frame a constitution. "The Declaration of the Rights of Man" is approved by the French National Assembly. In Paris, a delegation of distinguished mulattos (gens de couleur) from France's wealthiest colony, Domingue (Haiti), asks whether the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen applies to them, and they are told that it does.  The planetary satellites of Saturn, Enceladus and Mimas were discovered by Herschel. Also in this year, Tawantinsuya colonization expeditions arrive in Australia and New Zealand. The Australian expedition lands at the mouth of what in OTL would be known as the Brisbane River. A settlement, guarded by a fort, is constructed. This settlement will be named New Cuzco. The New Zealand expedition lands on the north island of the archipelago, and a settlement is constructed there as well. Additional yearly expeditions will reinforce and expand both colonies.

A.D. 1790-1791--The Miami War. Over the preceding four years, tensions between the native American tribes in the Northwest Territory and white settlers have increasingly resulted in violence. In early 1790, the Miami Confederacy decides on a war to evict the American invaders from their lands. Hundreds of white settlers...men, women, and children...are killed and scalped by Indian raiding parties, and many more are carried away as captives. Farms and towns are burned, a panicked mass exodus of whites from the territory results, and for a brief time, American control of the region appears very much in doubt. But in June 1790, President Nathaniel Greene orders General Anthony Wayne, commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army, to lead a force into the territory to restore American control. 20,000 American troops...over half of the entire U.S. Army at that time...are mustered for the campaign. In a brutal campaign, Wayne destroys the power of the Miami Confederacy within a year. The leaders of the Miami Confederacy, Miami Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee Chief Blue Jacket, sue for peace in July 1791. A treaty is signed in which the tribes agree to disband their Confederacy and recognize American ownership of the disputed lands.

A.D. 1791--Following a dinner celebrating the second anniversary of the Fall of the Bastille, an angry mob riots in Birmingham, England. The main target of their wrath is the home, church, and laboratory of English chemist and theologian Joseph Priestly, who openly supported the American and French revolutions. Priestly and his family narrowly escape with their lives. John Barber invents the gas turbine. Early bicycles are invented in Scotland. Nathaniel Greene and Alexander Hamilton are elected to a second term as President and Vice President of the United States.  In Domingue, white vigilantes defeat a small army of gens de couleur. Twenty-two of the gens de couleur, are hanged, as is a priest who had joined them. Slaves revolt. Plantations are burned and around a thousand whites slaughtered. Paris sends soldiers to the colony to restore order.

A.D. 1791 onward--In the years following the Miami War, the U.S. government forcibly evicts all the remaining Native Americans from the Northwest Territory. Thousands of Indians flee north into Canada, where they seek, and are given, the protection of the British crown. Others cross the Mississippi into Spanish Louisiana. By 1800, not one Native American remains in the lands between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes. The main southern tribes living in U.S. Territory (the Cherokee and Creek, and later, the Choctaw and Chickasaw), seeing the fate of their northern neighbors, quickly move to make treaties of friendship and accomodation with the United States. These are granted, in exchange for large land concessions by the tribes. By 1815, these once proud tribes are all confined to reservations consisting of a tiny fraction of their former domains.

A.D. 1792--The "Old Farmer’s Almanac" is published for the first time. Paul Revere opens a foundry to cast cannon and bells. The New York Stock Exchange was founded by brokers meeting under a tree located on what is now Wall Street. William Murdock invents gas lighting.

A.D. 1793--The Second Partition of Poland. Reign of Terror begins in France. First Republican constitution in France adopted.  On Domingue, the black leader Toussaint L'Ouverture decrees all slaves emancipated, and many slaves join his rebel army. He sends emissaries to Britain and the Quilombo, asking for aid. The British, at war with France, land a mixed force of British and Quilombo troops in the south of the colony, where they operate in cooperation with the rebel forces.

A.D. 1794--Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, is executed on the guillotine during France's Reign of Terror. Maximilien Robespierre guillotined in Paris without a trial. With his death, the Reign of Terror gradually peters out. Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin.

A.D. 1795--Directory rules France (to 1799). Louis XVII, the Dauphin of France allegedly dies at the age of 10, of tuberculosis. The Third Partition of Poland. Poland ceases to exist as an independent nation. Francois Appert invents the preserving jar for food, the forerunner of modern canned food. Death of Auqui Amaru Inca. He is succeeded by his brother, who reigns as Ninan Cuyuchi Inca.  Also in this year, the last French troops are expelled from Domingue. Toussaint L’Ouverture declares the independence of Domingue from France, and the Republic of Haiti is born.

A.D. 1796--British conquer Ceylon from Dutch. English physician Edward Jenner administered the first vaccination against smallpox, using serum made from cowpox rather than smallpox itself, to an 8-year-old boy.  This is much safer than the smallpox-based inoculations which have been mandatory in the Tawantinsuyu Empire since the 1730s, and will become the standard for smallpox inoculations worldwide over the succeeding decades. The Haitian Revolutionaries adopt a democratic constitution, influenced by those of the Quilombo and the United States of America. Toussaint L’Ouverture is elected the first President of the Republic of Haiti.

A.D. 1797--Treaty of Campo Formio signed by France and Austria after Napoleon's first campaign in Italy. Nathaniel Greene and Alexander Hamilton are re-elected for a third term as President and Vice President of the United States. Passage of the Sedition Acts...laws intended to quell dissent against the increasing power of the central government in America...by the U.S. Congress in the name of "national security." Among those arrested and jailed is the old revolutionary firebrand, Samuel Adams, who has been very vocal in denouncing the surrender of the "rights and liberties" of the "States and the People" to the central government. Adams dies in suspicious circumstances while in custody later that same year. Also arrested is General Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee of Virginia, who also has been vocal against the growing power of the government. Lee is tried for sedition and sentenced to 10 years at hard labor. He will die of overwork and abuse three years later.

A.D. 1798--The Pope was dethroned from political power. Napoleon Bonaparte lands in Egypt, defeats the Mamelukes at the Battle of the Pyramids. The French fleet supporting Napoleon’s army, however, is destroyed the British fleet at the Battle of the Nile, leaving Napoleon virtually cut off from supply and reinforcement from France.

A.D. 1799--Napoleon Bonaparte invades Syria.   Five nations unite against France. Napoleon returns to France from the middle east, leads a coup against the Directory. Consulate rules France (to 1804), with Napoleon as First Consul. Alessandro Volta invents the electric battery.

GO TO PART FIVE: 1800-1850 A.D.

RETURN TO CONTENTS

Copyright 2005, 2006 by Robert Perkins.  All Rights Reserved.  Last Updated on  4 February 2006.