A.D. 1532-1533--King Henry VIII of England breaks with the Roman Catholic Church and establishes the Church of England. Beginning of the English Reformation.

A.D. 1533--Diego de Almagro, leading reinforcements for Pizzaro, lands at Tumbez. He advances inland, but is met north of Tumbez by a Tawantinsuya army, and his force meets the same fate as Pizzaro’s. Almagro is killed, about half of his men and most of their horses are captured. Yet more Spanish "technical advisors" are unwillingly added to the service of the Inca. It is from this group that Atahualpa learns of the contents of the Treaty of Tordesillas, and realizes that he has a MAJOR problem. Shortly afterward, Atahualpa has his brother, Huascar, put to death. Lacking a leader, the remaining rebel forces gradually disperse, and order is restored to the empire. Atahualpa begins preparing the empire’s defenses for the confrontation with the Spanish imperialists which he knows is going to occur, sooner or later. Also in this year, the first recorded uprising of African slaves in the New World takes place in Cuba. The slaves are defeated and killed, and their heads brought back to Bayamo to quiet the alarmed colonists.

A.D. 1534--The disappearance of the expeditions of Francisco Pizzaro and Diego de Almagro leads the Governor of Guatemala, Pedro de Alvarado, to believe that Pizzaro and Almagro have conquered the rich lands rumored to be to the south and are hoarding their wealth for their own. Alvarado leads a well-equipped expedition of 1,000 Spanish soldiers (including over 200 cavalry) southward. He lands on the Ecuadorian coast and advances toward Quito. Runners bring this news to Atahualpa Inca, who immediately leads his main army northward from Cuzco. The Tawantinsuya army of 40,000 meets Alvarado’s force near Quito, and in a bloody and hard-fought battle, the Spanish force is defeated and routed. The Tawantinsuya pursue, and only a few Spaniards make it back to the coast, where they escape aboard one of their ships. The remainder of the ships are captured by the Tawantinsuya. About 1/4 of the Spanish force (including Alvarado himself) are taken prisoner...including more blacksmiths...and most of the horses are captured, along with all the Spanish arms, armor, and other equipment. A cadre of Spanish sailors is also captured, which teach the Tawantinsuya the rudiments of sailing the captured Spanish ships, and also serve as "technical advisors" for the construction of additional vessels. It is thus that the Tawantinsuya Navy is born. The Spanish armor and other equipment is used to equip an elite regiment in the Tawantinsuya army which forms the Inca’s personal bodyguard. Alvarado is sacrificed to Inti, the Tawantinsuya sun god, later that year.

A.D. 1534-1560--The survivors of the Alvarado expedition arrive back in Guatemala in late 1534. They bring terrifying tales of a powerful and well-armed empire to the south. Short of manpower, and with English and French "pirates" beginning to encroach on their domains, Spanish leaders in the colonies decide to give the Tawantinsuya a wide berth, at least for now. There will be a few clashes between Spanish and Tawantinsuya warships off the Pacific coast of the Tawantinsuya Empire, but little more will happen during this time period.

A.D. 1534-1536--Jacques Cartier explores the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River as far as present day Quebec and Montreal. He claims the region for France, and establishes a settlement at Montreal, which does not, however, survive (the site will be resettled at a later date).

A.D. 1535--The Spanish establish the colony of New Spain in Mexico.

A.D. 1536--Denmark adopts Lutheranism. Also in this year, Richard Hore sails from England accompanied by some enthusiastic Englishmen who are enthralled at the idea of exploring the coasts of North America as "tourists". It is largely because of these individuals that the English become interested in establishing a colony on this continent.

A.D. 1538--Norway adopts Lutheranism. Colombia is conquered for Spain by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada.

A.D. 1540--Francisco de Coronado strikes north from Mexico and explores much of the American southwest, claiming the area for Spain.

A.D. 1541--John Calvin establishes the Reformed Church in Geneva.

A.D. 1546-47--The Schmalkaldic War: Emperor Charles V, having made peace at last with France, gathers an army and declares war on the Schmalkaldic League. His forces inflict a decisive defeat on the League at the Battle of Muhlburg in 1547. The League is effectively destroyed, but warfare will continue between Catholics and Protestants in Germany.

A.D. 1547--King Henry VIII of England dies, and is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Edward VI. Edward continues the active royal support of the Reformation begun by his father.

A.D. 1549--Because of the dangers implicit in the French depredations along the Brazilian coast, King John revokes most of the powers held by the donatarios and places Brazil under the rule of a governor-general. The first governor-general, Thomé de Souza, arrives in Brazil in 1549, organizes a central government, with the newly founded city of Salvador, or Bahia, as his capital, institutes comprehensive administrative and judicial reforms, and established a coastal defense system. Large numbers of slaves are brought into the region from Africa to overcome the shortage of laborers.

A.D. 1553--King Edward VI of England dies. He is succeeded by his older sister, Mary. Mary is the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, whose divorce from King Henry VIII precipitated the English Reformation. She is a stauch Catholic, and will spend her reign ruthlessly suppressing Protestantism within her Kingdom.

A.D. 1554--Queen Mary of England marries Prince Philip of Spain, son of Emperor Charles V. They produce no children, however. Sao Paulo, in the south of Brazil, is founded by Portugal.

A.D. 1555--The French found a colony on Rio de Janeiro Bay. Emperor Charles V signs the Peace of Ausburg, which recognizes the right of individual German states to choose whether they shall be Protestant or Catholic.

A.D. 1556--Emperor Charles V abdicates his throne. The Spanish Empire, including the Netherlands and all territories in the New World, go to Prince Philip, who reigns as King Philip II. The Austrian Empire, and the claim to the title of Holy Roman Emperor, go to Ferdinand, brother of the outgoing Emperor.

A.D. 1557--Death of Atahualpa Inca. He dies childless and is succeeded by his half-brother, who reigns as Manco Capac II, Inca of the Tawantinsuyu Empire.

A.D. 1558--Queen Mary of England dies, and is succeeded by her Protestant sister, Elizabeth. Under the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Protestantism is restored, English power and influence will grow, and England will become a constant thorn in the side of the King of Spain.

A.D. 1559--Tristan de Luna y Arellano leads an attempt by Spaniards to colonize Florida. He establishes a settlement at Pensacola Bay, but a series of misfortunes causes his efforts to be abandoned after two years.

A.D. 1560--Portugal destroys the French colony on Rio de Janeiro Bay.

A.D. 1560-1566--War between Spain and the Tawantinsuyu Empire: Upon his accession to the throne, King Philip II of Spain decides that the pagans of Tawantinsuyu, whose increasingly formidable navy is causing problems for Spanish shipping along the South American coast, must be brought to heel. He orders a fleet to be fitted out, which is to transport a professional army of 20,000 men to Mexico. From there, the army will be transported from a port on Mexico’s west coast to the coast of the Tawantinsuyu Empire. The fleet sets sail in 1560, arriving in Mexico later that year. By 1561, enough shipping has been accumulated on Mexico’s west coast to transport the army to Peru (of course, by this time, the army has been much reduced by disease, shipwrecks, etc.). In early 1562, the Spanish force, now numbering about 15,000 men, lands near Tumbez. Runners quickly inform the Inca Manco Capac II of this development, and the Inca orders mobilization of the imperial army. The Tawantinsuya army...which, despite the ravages of disease over the past few decades, still quickly musters over 50,000 men to meet the invaders...meets the Spanish near Chan Chan in August, 1562. In a very sanguine struggle, the heavily outnumbered Spaniards are defeated. They are pursued as they flee to their ships, and fewer than 2,000 manage to escape. The war will drag on for another four years, mainly in the form of individual encounters at sea between Spanish and Tawantinsuyu warships. But in 1566 King Philip, who had been planning to send a second expedition, under the Duke of Alva, to South America, faces the outbreak of the Dutch revolt, and is forced to send his army to the Netherlands instead. So the war essentially peters out without a peace treaty being signed. Another period of relative peace settles on the region.

A.D. 1562-1598--The Wars of Religion (Huguenot Wars) in France between Catholics and Protestants.

A.D. 1563--Death of Manco Capac II, Inca of the Tawantinsuyu Empire. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as Sayri Tupac, Inca of the Tawantinsuyu Empire.

A.D. 1562--Frenchman Jean Ribault explores the Florida coast.

A.D. 1564--Frenchman René Goulaine de Laudonnière establishes Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River, near present-day Jacksonville, Florida. Most of the settlers are Protestant Huguenots.

A.D. 1565--Pedro Menéndez de Avilés is ordered by King Philip II of Spain to remove the French and create a Spanish settlement in Florida. He arrives at a place he calls San Augustín (St. Augustine) and establishes what will be the first permanent European settlement in what will one day be the United States. Later that year he will attack the French settlement at Fort Caroline, and massacre everyone except some non-combatants and those who profess the Roman Catholic faith. He renames the captured French settlement as Fort San Mateo.

A.D. 1566 onward--The Dutch Revolt. In the Spanish Netherlands, Protestantism (in the form of Calvinism) has been gaining influence. In 1566, Calvinist mobs storm Catholic churches across the Netherlands and destroy the "heretical" statues of Catholic saints. In response, King Philip II of Spain orders the Duke of Alva to take an army into the Netherlands to suppress the "rebellion." Alva is so brutal in his tactics that within two years, the Spanish Netherlands are in a state of full-scale war. The Protestants are joined by Dutch nobles who object to heavy-handed Spanish taxation policies, and merchants who object to Philip II’s almost constant wars against many of the biggest trading partners of the Dutch.

A.D. 1567--Portugal founds the city of Rio de Janeiro. Also in this year, Frenchman Dominique de Gourgues recaptures San Mateo and massacres the Spanish soldiers stationed there. But Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, returning from Spain, soon leads another expedition which wipes out the new French incursion, and ends forever French attempts to colonize Florida.

A.D. 1567 onward--Spain's pattern of constructing forts and Roman Catholic missions is continued in Florida. Spanish missions are established among native people, a chain of these soon extending across north Florida and as far north along the Atlantic coast as the area that we now call South Carolina. From there, European diseases will be introduced to the native peoples of southeastern North America. The diseases will spread along native trade routes, with devastating consequences. Under the stress caused by these epidemics, the Mississippian chiefdoms which dominate much of the area will collapse within a century, and a great social and political reorganization of the region will begin.

A.D. 1572--St. Bartholmew’s Day Massacre in France. Thousands of Protestants are murdered in cold blood by rampaging Catholics.

A.D. 1578--Queen Elizabeth having missioned him to occupy the lands that had not yet been conquered by Spain, Portugal or France, Sir Humphrey Gilbert appropriates Newfoundland to the Crown of England, as well as a vast territory north and south of the island. No attempt at immediate colonization is made, however.

A.D. 1578-1581--Englishman Francis Drake, having passed through the Straits of Magellan and sailed north along the South American coast, encounters a Tawantinsuya trading vessel. As it happens, some of the Tawantinsuya speak Spanish, and Drake manages to have a peaceful dialog with the Tawantinsuya crew. He finds out about the Tawantinsuya defeats of the Spanish Empire, and decides to try to enlist them as allies for England against Spain. He lands on the Peruvian coast, accompanied by some of the Tawantinsuya from the trading vessel. He is escorted to the palace of the Inca at Cuzco, and after a series of discussions, the Inca agrees to send an ambassador to the court of Queen Elizabeth of England with an offer of alliance. Drake arrives back in England, with the ambassador, in 1581. Queen Elizabeth is impressed by Drake’s descriptions of the power and wealth of the Tawantinsuyu Empire, and she signs a treaty of alliance between England and the Tawantinsuyu Empire. Although this will have little immediate practical military effect, as the Tawantinsuya are too far away to intervene effectively in England’s coming wars with Spain, trade between England and the Tawantinsuya begins, and English ships operating in the Pacific now will be able to use Tawantinsuya ports as a base of operations against the Spanish.

A.D. 1579--The new Spanish Governor of the Netherlands, the Duke of Parma, prompts the southern (Walloon) states of the Netherlands to sign the Union of Atrecht, which pledges loyalty to the Spanish King and rejects Protestantism. In response, William of Orange, known as "the Silent," unites the Protestant northern (Dutch) provinces into the Union of Utrecht.

A.D. 1580--Philip II forcibly unites the crown of Portugal with that of Spain. The Spanish found the settlement of Buenos Aires on the Rio de la Plata in Argentina.

A.D. 1581 onward--The Trade between England and the Tawantinsuyu Empire has great impacts on both societies. English domestic animals...cattle and sheep primarily...are introduced to the Tawantinsuya, as well as crops such as wheat, barley, oats, and others. In turn, the English import llamas, maize, potatoes, and tomatoes. English-style ale becomes a popular drink among many in Tawantinsuyu, and Chicha (a maize beer produced by the Tawantinsuya) makes it’s appearance on English tables alongside Port Wine from Portugal, England’s other traditional ally. Chewing coca leaves becomes a fashionable pastime for English gentlemen, ranking right up there with tobacco (another New World import). And perhaps most importantly of all, the Tawantinsuya learn much from the English which enables them to dramatically improve their military technology, especially naval technology. "Race-built" galleons begin to replace the old Spanish style vessels which currently make up the Tawantinsuya Navy.

A.D. 1581--The Union of Utrecht declares independence from the Spanish Empire. The United Provinces of the Netherlands is born. King Philip II of Spain sends another army to put down this revolt.

A.D. 1584--William the Silent is assassinated. Leadership of the Protestant cause in the Netherlands passes to his son, Maurice of Nassau. Also in this year, Sir Walter Raleigh establishes the first English colony in the New World, on Roanoke Island.

A.D. 1585--The Treaty of Nonsuch. Queen Elizabeth of England agrees to send an army to the aid of the beleaguered Dutch rebels. The Earl of Leicester lands in the Netherlands with 5,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry. The English will continue to fight alongside the Dutch for the next two decades. This, along with unofficially sanctioned English piratical activity in the Caribbean and the Pacific, enrages King Philip of Spain, who decides on war with England.

A.D. 1587--Mary, Queen of Scots, is executed by orders of her cousin, Queen Elizabeth of England. This further encourages King Philip of Spain to go to war with England.

A.D. 1588-1604--King Philip II of Spain dispatches the first of several Great Armadas with the purpose of invading England, beginning a sixteen year war between the two countries.

A.D. 1589--King Henri III of France is assassinated. The heir to the throne is Henri of Navarre, a Protestant. The new King Henri IV soon finds himself in conflict with the powerful Catholic League (heavily supported by King Philip II of Spain), which opposes the idea of a Protestant King of France.

A.D. 1590-1604--Sayri Tupac Inca, honoring his treaty with Queen Elizabeth of England, declares war on King Philip II of Spain. Tawantinsuya armies invade Colombia and Argentina, and a series of see-saw campaigns results. With his resources being tied up in the ongoing struggle with England, Philip II has little to spare for the colonies, and in the end, the Spaniards are driven from Argentina, and parts of Colombia are conquered as well. The Tawantinsuyu incorporate the conquered areas into their empire. When the peace treaty between England and Spain is signed at London in 1604, representatives of the Tawantinsuyu Empire will also be present and will sign, ending their own war with Spain.

A.D. 1591--An English relief expedition to the colony on Roanoke Island, which had been delayed by the outbreak of war with Spain, finds the settlement deserted. Noone ever discovers what became of the colonists.

A.D. 1592--Tupac Yupanqui, son of Tupac Amaru Inca, is sent to serve as Ambassador to
England, a position he in which he will serve until the death of his father in 1616. While
in England, he partakes of English culture, including education at Oxford University and
the University of Cambridge, where he meets, befriends, and is deeply influenced by
Puritan leaders such as Thomas Cartwright and Walter Travers.

A.D. 1593--Henri IV of France (formerly Henri of Navarre, a Protestant who is head of the House of Bourbon), converts to Catholicism, declaring that "Paris is worth a Mass." Over the next few years, this clever political move will cut the support for his enemies and enable him to finally end the Wars of Religion in France. He enters Paris without firing a shot the next year, and by 1598, the war will be over.

A.D. 1597--Death of Sayri Tupac Inca. He is succeeded by his half brother, Tupac Amaru Inca.

A.D. 1598--The Edict of Nantes, issued by King Henri IV, grants religious toleration to Protestants in France. End of the Wars of Religion in France. Also in this year, King Henri IV of France names Troilus de La Roche de Mesgouez "Lieutenant-general of the countries of Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador and Norembègue". Between 1598 and 1603, a few dozen men and women are transported and established on Sable island, a part of what today is Nova Scotia. The endeavour of the Marquis de La Roche is the second attempt to colonize Canada, and like the earlier attempt of Jacques Cartier, will fail. Also in this year, King Philip II of Spain dies, and is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Philip III. Philip III continues his father’s war against England and the Tawantinsuya. Also in this year, the Tawantinsuya capture Buenos Aires, ending Spanish occupation of what in OTL would be Argentina. The Tawantinsuya decide not to destroy the town, as it provides them with a ready-made port on the Atlantic, giving them better access to trade with their English allies. Over the next decade a road linking the port to the main part of the Tawantinsuyu Empire will be built, and the port itself will be heavily fortified.

A.D. 1600--The East India Company, a joint venture between the English and the Tawantinsuya, is formed. The purpose of the company is to help break the Dutch monopoly on the spice trade with the East Indies. The British partners hope to use Tawantinsuyu’s position on the Pacific as a base for voyages to the Spice Islands, China, and India.