c. 800 BC onward--Greece is gradually emerging from the Dark Ages following the fall
of the Mycenaean civilization. An increase in trade and the establishment of
governmental defense fortifications allows for the emergence of Greek city-states (the
Polis) from tribal communities. These grow up around marketplaces and include cities
such as Athens, Thebes, Sparta, Corinth and Megara on the Greek mainland. For the most
part, the Greek city-states are similar in their political evolution, with the exception of
Sparta's elite dictatorship. Most begin their political histories as monarchies, evolve to
oligarchies, are overthrown during the age of the tyrants (c. 650-500 BC) and eventually
establish democracies in the sixth and fifth centuries. Of the Greek city-states, Athens
and Sparta will be the two most important.

770 BC--Founding of Gadir, gateway to Spanish silver.

760 BC - Founding of the city of Cumae as a Greek trading station by Euboean colonists.

753 BC--Traditional date for the founding of Rome (legendary) by Romulus and Remus.
After killing his brother, Romulus reigns as the first Roman king. Rape of the Sabines at
Rome.

750-500 BC--Heavy Greek colonization of Sicily, Southern Italy, Southern Provence,
Andalusia and Cyrenaica, encircling Carthaginian and Etruscan territory.

c. 750 BC--Etruscan voyages towards southern Tyrrhenian Sea and start of Etruscan
'thalassocracy.' Etruscan sea power and merchant trading begins to make itself felt all
over the western Mediterranean. Also at this time, Euboean Greeks found Naxos and
Megarian Greeks found Megara Hyblaea in Sicily.

c. 750-650 BC--Hoplite phalanx adopted by cities of Greece. Previously fighting was
carried out by a relatively few warriors with a shield, sword and spear with no armor and
were not organized in a phalanx. Hoplites had defensive armor and fought in close
formation, a series of rows called a phalanx. Later on, the phalanx will be adopted by the
Romans and Etruscans as a result of contact with the Greeks.

c. 735-716 BC--First Messenian War. Sparta conquers the neighboring state of Messenia.
The population of Messenia is enslaved and becomes the "helot" class in Spartan society.

733 BC--Syracuse founded by Corinthian Greeks in Sicily.

730 BC - Date of founding of the city of Rhegium by Greeks from Chalcis.

716 BC--Romulus, the legendary founder and first King of Rome, dies. Numa Pompilius
becomes king of Rome.

c. 710 BC--Achaean Greeks found Sybaris and Croton, Laconians (Spartans) found
Tarentum, all in southern Italy. Also at about this time, the Etruscans adopt the Euboean
Greek alphabet.

c. 700 BC--Etruscan city states unite in a loose confederation which begins to dominate
northern and central Italy.

c. 700-670 BC--Rhodian Greeks and Cretans found Gela, Locrian Greeks found Locri
and Epizephyrii, Greeks from Colophon found Siris, all towns in Sicily and southern
Italy.

673 BC--Death of Numa Pompilius, King of Rome. Tullius Hostilius becomes king of
Rome. During his reign, he builds the Curia Hostilia, the Senate House.

654 BC--Carthage founds colony in the Balearic Islands at Ibiza.

642 BC--Roman King Tullius Hostilius dies. King Ancus Marcius succeeds him.

c. 615 BC--King Ancus Marcius dies in Rome. Shortly afterward, Rome is occupied by
the Etruscans, possibly as the result of an invasion. From this point, for the next 100
years, Etruscan Kings will rule in Rome, beginning with the rule of Tarquinius Priscus.

600 BC--Carthage fails to prevent the Phocaean Greek colony at Massilia (Marseilles), on
the south coast of what is now France. The Greeks of Cumae (on the coast south of
Rome) found the city of Neapolis (modern Naples) on the coast to the south of Cumae.
Also in this year, Rome conquers the city of Alba Longa, marking the beginning of it’s
expansion at the expense of it’s Latin neighbors.

580 BC--First attempt by Greeks to drive Phoenicians out of Sicily. Also at this time, the
Roman Forum is established during the rule of Tarquinius Priscus.

579 BC--Death of Tarquinius Priscus, Etruscan King of Rome, who is axed in the head by
two farmers. He is succeeded by Servius Tullius.

574 BC--Tyre falls to Nebuchadnezzar. Carthage on its own more than ever.

550 BC--Carthage allies with the Etruscans against the Greeks. Also in this year, a
Carthaginian force led by Malchus defeats the Greeks in Sicily, but is vanquished in
Sardinia. Malchus is banished, marches on Carthage, but is caught and executed.

550? BC--Carthaginian colonies formed along coast of Africa, Algeria, Hadrumetum,
Leptis.

540-535 BC--Etruscan-Carthaginian coalition against Phocaeans of Corsica. Naval battle
of the Sardinian Sea is a defeat for the Greeks. As a result, the Phocaean colony in
Corsica is destroyed, the Etruscans establish control of Corsica, and Carthage takes first
steps towards conquest of Sardinia.

539 BC--Asian Phoenicia falls to Cyrus the Great of Persia.

535 BC--Death of the second Etruscan King of Rome, Servius Tullius. He is succeeded
by King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus ("Tarquin the Proud").

c. 530 BC--Etruscan power in central Italy at its height.

524 BC--Battle of Cumae; Greeks halt Etruscan expansion to the south.

509 BC--Overthrow of the Etruscan king Tarquin the Proud and destruction of the
monarchy in Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus. Foundation of the Roman Republic; Roman
domination of Latium begins.

508 BC--The city of Rome is attacked, but not captured, by King Lars Porsenna of
Clusium. Porsenna is the head of a loose confederation of Etruscan city states and is
trying to restore Etruscan rule in Rome.

507 BC--Treaty between Carthage and Rome.

506 BC - A planned invasion of Rome by Tarquin the Proud and Lars Porsenna and an
army of Etruscans is defeated by the Latin League and Aristodemos of Cumae in a battle
at Aricia. Later that year, a Roman noble named Horatius Cocles stops another attempted
Etruscan invasion, when he bars the bridge into Rome. While he is defending the bridge,
his comrades chop it down to prevent the enemy crossing. Horatius swims, fully armored
across the Tiber to safety.

505 BC--Cleisthenes founds democracy in Athens.

c. 500 BC--Etruscan expansion in northern Italy. Celtic tribes settle in Britain.

498 BC--Hippocrates and Theron seize control in Syracuse and attempt to throw the
Phoenicians off the western part of Sicily.

496 BC--Battle of Lake Regillus between the Romans and the Latins. The divine twins,
Castor and Pollux were supposedly seen at the battle fighting with the Romans. Also in
this year, the deposed King Tarquinius Superbus dies in Cumae, where he had been
granted refuge.

495-450 BC--Wars between Rome and various Umbrian (Volsci, Aequi, Hernici,
Sabines) and Oscan (Aurunci) hill tribes. These flare up intermittently for the next half
century, until the destruction of Rome itself.

495 BC--Battle of Aricia of the Romans against the Aurunci. Also in this year, the Roman
forces capture the town of Seussa Pometia. The Romans sign a military pact with the
Hernici.

494 BC--Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus is appointed Dictator of Rome, and
appoints M. Valerius as his Magister Equitum (master of the horse) after a battle against
the Italian Volscians. A bloody battle occurs between the Romans and the Volscians at
Velitrae. First Secession of the Plebs in Rome; creation of the tribunes of the plebs, two
of whom are elected annually.

493 BC--A treaty known as the Foedus Cassianum is signed by Rome and the Latins in
order to protect themselves against incursions from mountain tribes such as the Aurunci,
Volsci, Aequi, and Hernici. The Roman general Gnaeus Marcius captures the Volscian
town of Corioli and is thus given, by decree of the senate, the surname Coriolanus. Also
in that year, the Volsci are defeated in a battle at Antium.

491 BC--The famous Roman general Coriolanus is exiled for threatening to raise grain
prices during a famine. He is sent to the Volsci but switches sides, and at the head of a
Volscian army, captures the Roman cities of Circeii, Satricum, Longula, Polsuca, Corioli,
Lavinium, Corbio, Vitellia, Trebium, Labici and Pedum. Just before he is about to invade
Rome, he is turned back by a plea from his mother. Later that year, the temple of Fortuna
Muliebris is built, to comemerate the memories and actions of the women who stopped
Coriolanus.

490 BC--The Athenian Greek forces under Miltiades defeat the invading Persian force
sent by King Darius of Persia at the battle of Marathon.

487 BC--The army of the Hernici (Italic hill tribe) is defeated by the Romans.

482-474 BC--Intermittent wars between Rome and the Etruscan city of Veii occur in this
period.

481 BC--Both Athens and Sparta join the Hellenic League against Persia

480 BC--Invasion of Greece by the forces of King Xerxes of Persia. The 'Spartan Last
Stand' occurs under Leonidas at Thermopylae. The Spartans are eventually defeated after
being betrayed by a traitor, Ephialtes. Later that year, the Greek forces under the general
Themistocles defeat the Persian navy under King Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.
Meanwhile, Carthage allies with Persia against the Greeks, but meets defeat in Sicily at
the Battle of Himera. Revolution in Carthage overthrows the kings of the Magonid
Dynasty and establishes the Court of 104 Magistrates. Carthaginian Republic begins.

479 BC--The battle of the Cremera occurs, when the Romans attack and defeat a Veiian
army. The battle of Plataea takes place in which the Persian army in Greece is decisively defeated.

479-450 BC--Re-buffed in Sicily, Carthage focuses on Africa, conquering most of what is
now Tunisia. Colonies in North Africa founded or strengthened. Mago's expedition
crosses the Sahara.

478 BC--The Hellenic League conquers Cyprus and Byzantium from the Persians.

477 BC--The League of Delos is formed, with Athens in the leadership position. Shortly afterward, Sparta responds by forming the Peloponnesian League with other cities opposed to Athens. The Delian League begins as a voluntary association of cities for the purpose of common defense against Persia, but over time, power accrues to Athens at the expense of the other members, and it becomes a de facto "Athenian Empire."

474 BC--An army of Etruscans is defeated near the town of Cumae by Hiero of Syracuse.
This is the first contact of any kind with Syracuse by the Romans. Rome begins to make
common cause with the Greek colonies on the southern Italian coast against the Etruscans
of central Italy. Later that year, a peace agreement between Veii and Rome is signed. It is
a shaky peace at best.

471 BC--Second secession of the plebs in Rome. The plebeian assembly is made into a
tribal affair, in that the tribes of Rome are asked to vote to pass plebiscites.

462 BC--A tribune of the plebs, G. Terentilius Harsa, begins to agitate for the
establishment of a committee to write down the laws of Rome. Dissatisfied plebeians in
Rome begin to riot.

461 BC: Pericles promotes the ideals of democracy and peace. First Peloponnesian War between Athenians and Spartans.

458 BC--A Roman general L. Minucius is defeated by the Aequi at Mt. Algidus, but the
army is rescued from complete annihilation by L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, who left his
plow to become dictator. He ruled for 16 days, then retired back to his farm.

456 BC--Third secession of the plebs in Rome. The plebeians of Rome are granted land
to live upon.

454 BC--Pericles of Athens has the treasury of the Delian League removed to Athens (it had originally been held on the island of Delos). This is generally held to mark the point at which the League of Delos became a de facto, if not de jure, Athenian Empire.

451 BC--The Code of the Twelve Tables is published in Rome. The number of the
tribunes of the plebs is raised to ten. Sparta and Athens sign the Five Year Peace ending the First Peloponnesian War.

c. 450 BC--The first bank is founded in Athens by Antisthenes and Archestratos. Herodotus writes the first non-theological history. Hippocrates lays the foundations of modern Medicine. The sculptor Pheidias completes the great statue of Zeus at Olympia, which will be accounted one of the seven wonders of the world.

450-448 BC--The War of the League of Volumnius. In 450 BC, King Volumnius of Veii forms a league of Etruscan city-states located south of the Po River (with the exception of Caere, which is a Roman ally) which concludes a treaty of alliance with Carthage against Rome and the Greeks. Carthage lands an army at the mouth of the Tiber which invests Rome from the south, while the Etruscans, lead by King Volumnius, attack Rome from the north. Rome appeals to the Greeks of Cumae and Syracuse for aid, but the Greeks arrive too late. The Roman army is defeated, and Rome itself is captured. Volumnius orders the town razed to the ground, and the population is sold into slavery. Rome ceases to exist, and the other towns of Latium are forced to accept Etruscan Kings. In 449 BC, the combined Carthaginian and Etruscan armies place Cumae under a six month siege. However, the combined Carthaginian and Etruscan fleets are defeated by the fleets of Cumae and Syracuse, and the Carthaginian army is cut off from it’s source of reinforcement and supply, forcing the abandonment of the siege. Carthage sues for peace shortly afterward, leaving the League of Volumnius to face the Greeks alone. The war continues in 448 BC with several inconclusive battles. Finally, toward the end of the year, King Volumnius and the League conclude a treaty of peace with Cumae and Syracuse, ending the war.

449 BC--The Delian League signs a peace treaty with Persia, ending the Persian Wars.

446-444 BC--The League of Volumnius lay siege to the city of Caere, an Etruscan city which has refused to join the League and which sided with Rome and the Greeks during the recent war. Caere holds out for two years, but finally falls to the besiegers. As punishment for siding with the Greeks against other Etruscans, the League decrees that all the males in the city be killed and the women and children sold into slavery. Caere is razed to the ground.

446 BC--Sparta and Athens sign a treaty called The Thirty Year Peace. Unfortunately, it won’t last that long.

442 BC--King Volumnius has been looking at the arrangements which Rome, prior to it’s destruction, was making with it’s Latin allies, especially the Foedus Cassianum, and recognizes that a similar arrangement between the Etruscan cities would have great benefits. Volumnius meets with the leaders of the other Etruscan cities at Clusium. In a speech to the assembled Kings, Volumnius notes that throughout Etruscan history, the Etruscan cities have joined together in a religious league for joint worship of the common Etruscan gods. They have also, from time to time, joined together in military alliance, such as the recent League of Volumnius. But they have, too commonly, been disunited when faced by external threats. He cites the recent example of Caere, and argues that the time for such divisiveness has come to an end. Volumnius then proposes nothing less than a formal political union of the Etruscan cities, based on the principles of the Roman Foedus Cassianum. According to this proposal, the Etruscan cities would pledge to keep perpetual peace among themselves, aid each other in the case of attack, prevent the other's enemies from crossing their own territory, divide the spoils of joint campaigns equally, and provide mechanisms for resolving disputes between the citizens of different communities. Volumnius proposes that the legislative and executive power of this union, to be called the Etruscan League, be invested in a Great Council, to consist of all the kings of the various Etruscan cities, or representatives nominated by those kings. The Council would have power to legislate only on matters which pertain to all the cities of the League...local government would be left in the hands of the local Kings...and to arbitrate in disputes between member cities. No measure would be passed without a majority vote of this Council. To ensure that no member state could be coerced by the League, the Council would be forbidden to declare war on any Etruscan city which is a member state of the League, with two exceptions...if any member state refuses to participate in a war declared by the League Council, or if any member state declares war on any other member state without the approval of the League Council. In those cases only, the Council may declare that member state an enemy, and the League will deal with it as it did Caere. Volumnius also argues that the Latin cities formerly allied to Rome, which since the War of Volumnius have been ruled by Etruscan Dynasties, be also allowed to join this League, or, if they choose, remain independent of it. After much often acrimonious debate, most of the Etruscan Kings accept Volumnius’s proposal, but with one major amendment...any Latin cities which join the League at a later date will not have voting rights on the Great Council, but may send non-voting delegates to participate in debate during the decision-making process. The rulers of the cities of Volsinii, Populonia, and Felsina all decline to join the League, but the remaining Etruscan cities south of the Po River do join.

440-430 BC--Beginning of Samnite expansion into Campania. The Etruscan settlement at Capua is threatened.

440-431 BC--The Umbrian hill tribes of the Aequi and the Volsci once again begin encroaching on the fertile plain of Latium. The Latin cities appeal to the Etruscan League for aid, which is given. The Aequi and Volsci are decisively defeated in 431 BC by a combined Latin and Etruscan army at the Battle of the Algidus Pass. In the aftermath of this victory, most of the Latin cities apply for membership in the Etruscan League. Fighting with the Aequi and Volsci will continue sporadically until the end of the century, but they will never again be a serious threat to the Etruscans or their Latin allies.

438 BC--The Parthenon is inaugurated in Athens

431 BC--Beginning of the Second Peloponnesian War in Greece.

429 BC--Plague in Athens. Pericles, the great leader of Athens, perishes. Plato born, possibly in Athens.

425 BC--Phoenician explorer Himilco travels from Carthage to Brittany.

423 BC--The Samnites attack Capua. Capua, which is not a member of the Etruscan League, calls on the League for assistance, which is given. The Samnites are severely defeated and driven back into the mountains. Nevertheless the Etruscans are impressed by Samnite fighting prowess, and they begin to bargain for an alliance with these hardy hillmen. Capua formally joins the Etruscan League.

420 BC--The Etruscan League, in alliance with the Samnites, attacks Cumae. The Greeks are decisively defeated and Cumae is captured and destroyed. The lands formerly held by Cumae are given to the Samnites as a reward for their service to the League.

419 BC--The Etruscan League, in alliance with the Samnites, forces the surrender of the Greek colony at Neapolis. All of Campania is now in the hands of the Etruscan/Samnite alliance.

418 BC--Volsinii and Populonia join the Etruscan League.

415-413 BC--Athenian Expedition against Syracuse. Athens finds Syracusan resistance to be more than she bargained for, and sends embassies to the Etruscan League and to Carthage seek help. While Carthage does not respond, the Etruscan League, seeing a way to eliminate an old enemy and rival, allies with Athens, and a large force of troops and warships is sent. These prove decisive. Even though Syracuse receives a reinforcement from Sparta, it is not enough to break the Athenian siege, and Syracuse falls in 413 BC. The Athenians, with Etruscan support, decide to sell the entire population of Syracuse into slavery, sack the city, and raze it to the ground. The Athenians and Etruscans soon establish control over all the other Greek cities on the island, which are forced to join the Delian League.

413-408 BC--Bolstered by the plunder from Syracuse and the resources and manpower of Sicily, Athens goes on to defeat Sparta and it’s allies in the Peloponnesian War. Sparta itself is destroyed in 408 BC, and the other cities of the Peloponnesian League are forced to join the Delian League under the leadership of Athens. For the first time in history, almost all of Greece is united under a single banner...that of Athens.

412 BC--The Samnites in Campania break their alliance with the Etruscans and attack Capua again in an effort to take all of Campania for themselves. The Etruscan League decisively defeats them...so much so that the Samnites will be crippled for some time to come. The Samnites sign a new treaty of alliance with the Etruscan League.

410 BC--King Darius II of Persia allies with Sparta against Athens. Although the infusion of Persian gold helps Sparta, it is not enough, and Sparta still goes down to defeat. Athens will not forget this treachery. Also at this time, Phoenicians in Spain join with the native Celtiberians to secede from Carthage, denying the Carthaginian state important silver and copper revenues. The overland tin trade cut off, and as a result, Carthage begins looking for a sea route to acquire tin. Approximate time of Himilco's expeditions in the Atlantic and Hanno's expeditions to Morocco and Senegal. As a result of Himilco’s voyages, Carthage soon begins importing tin directly from Britain.

407-398 BC--The War of Revenge on Persia: At the urging of Athens, and citing Persia’s recent treachery during the Peloponnesian War, the Delian League declares war on Persia. The League declares the war to be a holy war of revenge, and common hatred of Persia among the Greeks encourages all the polei to contribute troops and ships for the expedition. At this same time, a rebellion has broken out in Egypt, lead by a native Egyptian prince named Amonirdisu, and it is decided to land in Egypt to support this rebellion. From there, the Greek army can advance into the Levant, and thence into the heart of the Persian Empire.

It takes over a year to prepare the expedition, but the Greek force finally sets sail under the command of the famous general Alcibiades (with a capable young man named Xenophon as second-in-command) in 406 BC. The Greeks lands at Naukratis, in the Nile Delta, in late 406 BC, link up with the Egyptians, and begin to battle the Persian garrisons. The Persians put up surprisingly strong resistance, and Egypt is not freed until early 404 BC. Amonirdisu is crowned Pharaoh of Egypt, and makes a formal alliance with the Delian League.

In late 404 BC, King Darius II of Persia dies, and is succeeded by Artaxerxes II. Artaxerxes offers to make amends for his father’s treachery against Athens by paying 10,000 talents of gold, if the Greeks will return home and cease interfering in Persia’s internal affairs. Alcibiades takes this offer to the Assembly in Athens. There are many in the Assembly who argue that honour has been satisfied, and that the expedition should be withdrawn...especially since word has now come of Carthaginian aggression against Delian League cities in Sicily. Acibiades, however, argues that "10,000 talents is a mere trifle to the Persian King. Let us have our revenge, and have ALL that he owns!" His argument is persuasive, and the Assembly votes to reject the Persian offer.

In 403 BC, with Alcibiades again in command, the combined Greek and Egyptian armies move north into Palestine, while the Greek and Egyptian fleets land a marine expeditionary force at Tyre. This marks the beginning of a campaign which will see the Greek forces brush aside one Persian army after another as they advance deeper into the Persian Empire. As they go they liberate the subject peoples of the empire, many of them rallying to the Greek standard. Finally, in 400 AD, a decisive battle is fought near the ruins of Nineveh in northern Mesopotamia. King Artaxerxes II himself is killed in battle, and his army is shattered by the steady Greek phalanx. The Persian Empire effectively collapses as uprisings against the local Persian satraps flare up throughout the empire. The Greek army marches into Susa and then to Persepolis by the end of 399 BC. The huge treasury of the Achaemenid Kings is captured at Susa, and the Greeks plunder the opulent palaces of Persepolis before setting them on fire in retaliation for the burning of Athens during the Persian Wars. By the end of 398 BC, the last remaining members of the Achaemenid royal house are captured and executed. The Persian Empire is no more.

406-400 BC--The First Sicilian War. Hannibal Mago, grandson of Hamilcar, attempts to conquer Sicily for Carthage, but in 405 BC he and hundreds of troops die in epidemic outside fortified town of Acragas. He is replaced by his relative Himilco. As the Delian League is currently fully engaged in it’s War of Revenge on Persia, it has no troops to send for Sicily’s defense, and Athens appeals to the Etruscan League for aid. But the Etruscan League, which only intervened in the Peloponnesian War in order to eliminate the threat posed by Syracuse (which was a dangerous military rival and trade competitor), has no desire to see Greek power in Sicily maintained. The League, therefore, while it was willing to work with Athens earlier in order to eliminate the threat posed by Syracuse, refuses to intervene in the current crisis. The Carthaginians reduce the Greek towns of Sicily by siege, one by one, over the course of the next six years, and by the end of 400 BC, Carthage is in control of the entire island.

404 BC--King Darius II of Persia dies, and is succeeded by Artaxerxes II.

402 BC--The Etruscan League renews it’s alliance with Carthage.

c. 400 BC--Celtic tribes begin to cross the Alps and assail the Etruscan cities located north of the Po River. The cities north of the Po River are not formally members of the Etruscan League, and they quickly fall to the onslaught of these fierce tribesmen. Incursions south of the Po are beaten back by the military forces of the League, however.

PART TWO:  400-300 B.C.

RETURN TO CONTENTS

Background picture is a bronze statue of an Etruscan warrior, c. 450 BC, and is used courtesy of THE CITY REVIEW.

Other clipart is courtesy of

Copyright 2005 by Robert Perkins, all rights reserved.  Last updated on 16 September 2005.