399 AD--Pharoah Amonirdisu of Egypt dies. With him dies the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty. The throne of Egypt is taken over by a prince from a royal house in the city of Mendes, who reigns as Pharaoh Nefaarud I and ushers in the Twenty-Ninth Dynasty of Egypt. Nefaarud and his successors will resume Egypt’s traditional interventionist policies in Palestine. Nefaarud will also reorganize the Egyptian army on the Greek model. The core of the army will be a Hoplite phalanx, supported by a force of foot archers and both heavy and light cavalry.

398 AD onward--At the conclusion of the War of Revenge, Alcibiades and the other Greek leaders realize that they cannot hope to hold onto the huge area formerly ruled by Persia. The Greek army takes it’s plunder and returns home, leaving a power vacuum which is quickly filled by resurgent native dynasties in Lydia, Babylonia and Egypt. While the new dynasties in the major regional states are consolidating their rule, the "small fry" also enjoy a brief interlude of independence. The city states of Phoenicia re-assert their independence. And, in the tiny little state of Yehud, King Zadok...first king of the House of David to rule over the Jews in almost 200 years...rules from Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Iranian plateau dissolves into chaos as the powerful peoples of the region splinter into several competing states...Media, Persia, Parthia and Bactria. The Elamites have also re-asserted their independence, and maintain a small state centered around Susa. None of these states has a clear military advantage over the others, and the Iranian plateau will be beset by continuous warfare between these states for the remainder of this century.

397 BC--Alcibiades returns to Athens. In the Assembly he is accused of treason for having brought the Greek army home from Persia rather than trying to hold on to the conquered territories. Supporters of Alcibiades riot against those who would seek to banish him, and in the violence, Alcibiades himself is killed (stabbed from behind during a melee in the Agora). Xenophon, who had served as second-in-command under Alcibiades, escapes with his life, but is banished by the Assembly. He will spend his later life composing his memoirs, which will become famous for centuries to come following his death.

397 onward--Lacking a restraining influence, the Assembly of Athens begins to follow more and more tyrannical policies toward other Delian League states. The Persian Plunder is claimed by Athens as it’s just restitution for the burning of Athens in 480 BC, and used to further beautify the city and build up an even more powerful military, which is used primarily to keep the other member states of the Delian League in line.

395-390 BC--The Second Sicilian War. Athens launches an expedition to Sicily to recover the Greek cities which were captured by Carthage while the mainland Greeks were engaged in their War of Revenge Against Persia. Carthage calls for aid from the Etruscan League, with which it has a treaty of alliance. The Etruscans land an army to cooperate with the Carthaginians against the Greeks in Sicily, and the combined Etruscan and Carthaginian fleets fight the Athenian fleet to a standstill off the coast of the island. The Greek army suffers a major defeat in at Gela in 391 BC, and is forced to surrender the following year. This is a major disaster for Athens from which it will not fully recover. Other Greek cities, which have been chafing under Athenian domination, begin plotting rebellion.

395 BC--Pharaoh Nefaarud I of Egypt invades Palestine. This is more of a plundering expedition than anything else, but while he is there, Nefaarud forces King Zadok of Yehud into tributary status.

394 BC--In Lydia, a new dynasty has assumed the throne last held by Croesus before the Persian conquest. The new king, who has taken the royal name of Gyges II, soon begins to make aggressive moves toward other Anatolian states. By the end of his reign, he will have unified most of Anatolia under his rule, with the exception of the Greek cities along the coast, which he wisely leaves alone for fear of incurring the wrath of Athens.

393 BC--Pharaoh Nefaarud I of Egypt dies, and is succeeded by Psammuthes. However, Psammuthes dies later that same year, and is succeeded by Hakor.

390 BC--In Babylonia, a new dynasty has taken power, founded by a Chaldean chieftain who takes the royal name of Nebuchadnezzar III.

390-385 BC--Pharaoh Hakor of Egypt leads yearly expeditions north into Palestine and Syria. He brings the Phoenician and Aramaean city states of Lebanon and Syria under Egyptian domination, for a time, at least.

388-381 BC--King Zadok of Yehud makes war on the surrounding peoples in Palestine (Ammonites, Moabites, Samaritans, Edomites, Philistines). The Jewish army, which Zadok has organized on the Greek model like that of his Egyptian overlords, outclasses anything fielded by his neighbors, and by 381 BC, all of Palestine is subject to Zadok’s rule. His overlord, the Pharaoh, is pleased, as this brings all of Palestine within the Egyptian sphere of influence as well.

389-385 BC--Nebuchadnezzar III of Babylon moves into northern Mesopotamia, conquering the old lands of Assyria. He also makes forays across the Euphrates into Syria, but is defeated and turned back by the Egyptians.

386 BC--The Gallic tribes of the Senones and the Boii cross the Po River and attack the Etruscan city of Felsina, which is not a member of the Etruscan League. Felsina appeals to the League for aid, which is granted. The Etruscan League army meets the Gauls at the River Allia, and defeats them. The Gauls are driven back north of the Po River. However, this will not be the last incursion of the Gauls into Etruscan League territory...fighting with the Gauls will consume the resources of the Etruscan League for much of the remainder of the century. Felsina joins the Etruscan League.

382-370 BC--Period of warfare between Egypt and Babylon. Beginning in 382 BC, King Nebuchadnezzar III of Babylon begins making yearly campaigns in Syria, where he tries to push out the Egyptians. Although there is much bloody fighting, neither side gains a clear advantage. Finally, in 370 BC, a treaty is signed recognizing the border between Egypt and Babylon at the Euphrates. The forces of Kings Zadok and Achim of Yehud participate in this struggle on the side of the Egyptians.

381-371 BC--The Theban War. In the wake of the Athenian disaster in Sicily, several Greek states, foremost among which are Thebes and Corinth, form an anti-Athenian alliance and declare their secession from the Delian League. The Thebans are very much the ringleaders, and the war comes to be named after them. It turns out to be a long and brutal struggle which will last for ten years, but Thebes benefits from the brilliant leadership of Epaminondas, and in the end, the power of Athens is broken, and the Delian League is dissolved. Greece is no longer united, and will soon attract the notice of an up-and-coming people to the north...the Macedonians.

381 BC--King Zadok of Yehud dies, and is succeeded by his son, Achim.

380 BC--Pharaoh Hakor of Egypt dies in battle with the Babylonians outside of Damascus. He is succeeded by his son, Nefaarud II. Nefaruud II is, however, quickly overthrown by one of his generals, who takes the throne as Pharaoh Nekhtnebef I. Thus begins the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt. Also in this year, Socrates dies of natural causes in Athens.

375 BC--Plato writes THE REPUBLIC. King Gyges II of Lydia dies, and is succeeded by

Alyattes III.

373 BC--The Temple of Delphi is destroyed in an earthquake.

367 BC--Aristotle enters the Academy of Plato.

365 BC--Death of King Nebuchadnezzar III of Babylon. He is succeeded by Marduk-apal-iddina III.

362 BC--Death of Pharaoh Nekhtnebef I of Egypt. He is succeeded by Djedhor.

360 BC--Death of Pharaoh Djedhor of Egypt. He is succeeded by Nahkthoreb. Death of King Alyattes III of Lydia. He is succeeded by Myrsus II.

359 BC--Phillip II Temenid comes to the throne of Macedonia. Phillip had, as a youth, been held hostage in Thebes and had observed the strategy of the great general Epaminondas. Phillip is himself a militarily gifted man, and when he assumes the throne, he makes radical changes to the organization and equipment of the Macedonian army. He introduces the Macedonian Phalanx, lightly armored compared to Greek Hoplites but armed with 15’ long pikes which are nearly twice as long as a Greek infantry spear. Phillip trains his army to fight using combined-arms tactics where the Phalanx is used to pin the enemy in place while light troops probe for a weak point in the enemy line. Once a weak point is found, the cavalry then makes a decisive charge. This new army will be devastating to all who encounter it.

358 BC--Death of King Achim of Yehud. He is succeeded by Eliud. King Eliud continues the pro-Egyptian policies of his predecessors, and rules happily as an Egyptian pawn throughout his reign.

350-332 BC--Period of conflict between the Etruscan League and the Samnites over control of Campania. Neither side is able to decisively defeat the other, and the situation ends up with an agreement recognizing the status quo ante bellum in 332 BC.

344 BC--Philip II of Macedonia conquers Thessaly, Illyria, Epirus.

342 BC--Aristotle tutors Alexander III Temenid of Macedonia, son and heir of King Phillip II.

340 BC--Athens and Thebes put aside their differences to face the threat posed by Phillip II.

338 BC--Philip II defeats Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea. Phillip forces most of the mainland Greek cities into the League of Corinth, under his leadership. Death of King Myrsus II of Lydia. He is succeeded by Croesus II. Croesus II will unwisely abandon the policies of his predecessors and begin interfering with the Greek cities of the Anatolian coast.

336 BC: Philip II of Macedonia is assassinated and is succeeded by his son Alexander III. Death of King Marduk-apal-iddina II of Babylon. He is succeeded by Bel-Ibni II.

335-333 BC--Revolts flare up in several Greek cities after the death of Phillip II. The new King Alexander puts these down mercilessly.

333 BC--Death of King Bel-Ibni II of Babylon. He is succeeded by Marduk-bel-Ikbi. Also in this year, King Alexander III of Macedon receives an entreaty for aid from the Greeks of the Ionian coast, which are under attack by the forces of the Lydian King, Croesus II. He is not able to immediately come to their aid, as he is still putting down rebellions at home.

333-331 BC--The Greek city of Taras, in southern Italy, is attacked by the Lucanians, the Bruttii and the Samnites (native Italian peoples of the area) and calls for aid from King Alexander Molossus of Epirus. Alexander Molossus is the uncle and strong ally of King Alexander III of Macedonia, and is a skilled general in his own right. Alexander wins several victories, but in the end is defeated and killed by the Lucanians (it doesn’t help his cause that the Greeks of Taras, having decided that Alexander was planning to set himself up as their ruler, switched sides and joined the Lucanians!). He is succeeded as King of Epirus by Aeacides.

332-331BC--Macedonian Conquest of Lydia. In 332 BC, King Alexander III of Macedon finally has ended all resistance to his rule at home, and he takes an army across the Hellespont to the succor of the Greek cities of Anatolia, which are being oppressed by King Croesus II of Lydia. Despite valiant resistance by the Lydians, Alexander succeeds in conquering Lydia and its possessions in Anatolia within a little more than a year. King Croesus is captured and executed, ending the Lydian dynasty. The Greek cities of Anatolia are not formally annexed by Macedonia, but are forced to join the League of Corinth.

331 BC--Death of Pharaoh Nahkthoreb of Egypt. He is succeeded by Nekhtnebef II.

c. 330 BC onward--The Etruscan League begins to establish relations with the Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini and Vestini (Oscan peoples related to the Samnites who live east of the Apennine Mountains on the shores of the Adriatic Sea). By the end of the century, these tribes will be allies of the Etruscan League.

330 BC--In the wake of the conquest of Lydia by King Alexander III of Macedonia, Pharaoh Nekhtnebef II of Egypt and King Marduk-bel-Ikbi of Babylon both send envoys to King Alexander, protesting their friendship. Alexander agrees to non-aggression treaties with both of these powers, as he has another target in mind...Carthage.

329-318 BC--The War of Sicilian Liberation. In 329 BC, King Alexander III of Macedonia calls an assembly of the leaders of the member cities of the League of Corinth. At the meeting, he states his intention to embark on an expedition to liberate the Greeks of Sicily from the "tyranny" of the Carthaginians. This project is greeted with much enthusiasm by the representatives at the assembly, many of whom secretly hope that Alexander’s army will meet the fate of that of Athens when it attempted a similar project some years earlier. All the cities agree to provide funding for the project, and several (but not most) also offer troops and ships. Alexander takes a year to prepare his expedition, and sets sail in early 328 BC. He lands near the ruins of Syracuse in April 328, and his forces are soon engaged in combat with Carthaginian forces on the island. Carthage calls on it’s ally, the Etruscan League, for assistance. But the Etruscans have continuing problems with the Gauls to their north, and they have heard tales of Alexander’s conquest of Lydia and his brutal suppression of the rebel Greek cities. And besides...the Etruscans have intervened twice on Carthage’s behalf in Sicily, and have received precious little in return. Indeed, Carthaginian control of Sicily has meant simply that one major trade rival has been replaced by another. So the Etruscans decide to sit this one out. Carthage has the better fleet, and the Carthaginian navy soon cuts Alexander’s access to supplies and reinforcements from Macedonia, but the Greek cities of Sicily are very much behind him, and his army is able to operate even so. Alexander is a brilliant tactician, and his army inflicts defeat after defeat on the Carthaginian forces. Carthage is, however, able to resupply and reinforce it’s troops on the island, so the war continues, and drags on for no less than ten years. Finally, in 318 BC, Alexander’s army is defeated outside the Carthaginian town of Lilybaeum by a new and brilliant Carthaginian general named Hamilcar Hannonid. The Carthaginians suffer nearly as much as the Macedonians do in this battle, and in the aftermath, Hamilcar offers a truce. Alexander meets with Hamilcar, and a treaty is signed, ending the War. Sicily is divided along the Halcyus River, with everything to the west belonging to Carthage and everything east going to Macedon.

323 BC--Death of King Eliud of Yehud. He is succeeded by Eleazar. Eleazar is not content to be an Egyptian catspaw, and begins plotting rebellion. He makes an alliance with King Marduk-bel-Ikbi of Babylon.

320-317 BC--Pharaoh Nekhtnebef II of Egypt learns of the schemes of King Eleazar of Yehud. He leads the Egyptian army northward to punish the upstart king. The Jewish army is defeated in the Valley of Jezreel, and Nekhtnebef lays siege to Jerusalem. The city falls after a three-year siege in 317 BC. The Egyptians sack the city, but do not destroy it. Nekhtnebef decides to remove the House of David from the throne of Yehud, and places an Egyptian governor in Jerusalem instead. King Eleazar is executed, his body quartered, and the parts hung at the four main gates of the city.

318-308 BC--Civil War in Macedonia. Alexander III of Macedon returns home with the survivors of his army from Sicily. Upon his return, he finds that in the ten years he has been under blockade in Sicily, affairs at home have not gone well. A group of Macedonian noblemen has conspired with King Aeacides of Epirus to depose him, replacing him with his half-witted half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, who they can easily control. These noblemen arrange to have Alexander assassinated shortly after his arrival in Macedonia. But this simply opens the door to outright civil war, as generals loyal to Alexander lead the veteran army returning from Sicily against the conspirators. The Greek cities of the League of Corinth take the opportunity to rebel against Macedonian control, and the entire Macedonian realm is soon the scene of bitter fighting. Fighting goes on for ten years, and in the end, the Macedonian Empire falls apart. Antigonus "One-Eye" ends up in control in Macedonia itself; Ptolemy and Seleucus end up with realms in Anatolia (Ptolemy as King of Lydia and Seleucus as King of Cappadocia); and Cassander, son of Antipater (who died in the first year of the civil war), sets himself up as Tyrant of Sicily. The Greek cities regain their independence, and form the Achaean League for mutual defense against Macedonia. Aeacides of Epirus is deposed, and Epirus is ruled by Antigonus of Macedonia for several years.

317 BC onward--The Jews, having tasted freedom once again, or something approximating freedom anyway, do not quietly accept the removal of their royal house and the imposition of an Egyptian governor. Over the next few decades, rebellion will simmer in the province. Egyptian officials soon find it safer not to leave their protected palaces, and there is a steady attrition of Egyptian garrison troops from hit and run raids.

Of course, the Egyptians respond with brutal atrocities, which only serves to fan the flames of rebellion more. But the Jews are simply too weak to expel the Egyptians, and their resistance is in vain...at least for now.

310 BC onward--Cassander orders the rebuilding of Syracuse, recognizing it’s superb location for trading and it’s strategic military value.

c. 310 BC onward--The Etruscan League reorganizes and re-equips its military in response to the demands made by the ongoing campaigns against the Gauls in northern Italy. The traditional hoplite phalanx is replaced with a more flexible formation, organized in three lines instead of one. It has been found that a single line can sometimes be broken by the fierce Gallic charge, but if there is a second line behind it, the situation, more often than not, can be retrieved. The third line is a reserve force, to be deployed wherever the line is in most danger of being breached. It has also been found that, instead of equipping the heavy infantry with a single thrusting spear, it is better to give them a couple of javelins in addition, as the javelins can help to break up the Gallic charge prior to impact. The new formation is supported by light troops (archers, slingers, and javelin men) and cavalry, and provides a flexible strike force.

304 BC--The Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini and Vestini apply for membership in the Etruscan League. Although they are not granted membership, treaties of alliance and joint commerce are signed between the League and these peoples.

301 BC--Death of King Marduk-bel-Ikbi of Babylon. He is succeeded by Nabu-apal-usur II.

PART TWO:  300-200 B.C.

RETURN TO CONTENTS

Background picture is a bronze statue of an Etruscan warrior, c. 450 BC, and is used courtesy of THE CITY REVIEW.

Other clipart is courtesy of

Copyright 2005 by Robert Perkins, all rights reserved.  Last updated on 16 September 2005.