BRITONS TRIUMPHANT

An Alternate History Timeline of Dark Age Britain 

PART SIX:  900-1000 A.D.

900--Death of King Donald mac Constantine of Alba. He is succeeded by Constantine mac Aeda.

901--Battle of Caer Leol (OTL Carlisle), in which the forces of High King Arthur IV (commanded by his younger brother, Meurig ap Cynan) decisively defeat the Vikings of Jorvik and recapture Rheged, once again linking the Kingdoms of Strathclyde and Gododdin with the rest of Britannia. The combined arms tactics developed under High Kings Cynan and Arthur IV prove highly successful here, and the Vikings suffer a terrible slaughter from which they will not fully recover.

902--The Norse are expelled from Dublin. A group attempts to settle in Britannia, but is defeated by British forces and goes to Alba (Scotland) instead, establishing themselves on some of the western isles.

903--Siege of Jorvik (Eborac)--Following up on the crushing defeat of the Vikings at Caer Llewelyd, British forces under the command of Meurig ap Cynan lay siege to the Viking stronghold at Jorvik (the former city of Eborac). The city is eventually forced to surrender, and King Halfdan of Jorvik is slain. The Kingdom of Jorvik is no more. Later that year, following their expulsion from Dublin by the Irish, another Viking army under Sihtric and Ragnald Ivarsson (sons of Ivar the Boneless) lands in Rheged. It is defeated by the British under Meurig ap Cynan and forced to withdraw from Britannia. The Vikings take refuge on the Isle of Man.

903--In this year, the Vikings attack the Kingdom of Alba, but are defeated at the Battle of Strathearn by King Constantine II mac Aeda.

903 onward--Following the final defeat of the Viking Kingdom of Jorvik, High King Arthur IV orders the reorganization of the lands reconquered from the Viking invaders. The provinces of Eborac, Elmet, Deywr and Rheged are reconstituted. Rather than forcing the Danes who have settled in the region to leave, it is decided to try to assimilate them into the structure of the British kingdom. Danish nobles and commoners who already hold land in the region are allowed to keep (most of) it, as long as they pay tribute to the High King and swear loyalty to him. British naval patrols virtually stop Danish immigration into the region.

As a result of these events, in the years following the British defeat of the Viking Kingdom of Jorvik, many thousands of Norse who, in OTL, emigrated from their homelands to Britain, will have to find new places to go. Some stay in their homelands, swelling populations there. Others go east, to join the Viking settlements of Rus. But a great many set sail to the new lands in the west…Iceland, and later, when it is discovered, Greenland. As a result the Norse settlements in these areas will be more thickly populated and better able to survive and expand than in OTL.

906--Magyars invade Germany.

908--Death of High King Arthur IV ap Cynan. He is succeeded by his son, Hywel II ap Arthur.

908-951--Reign of High King Hywel II ap Arthur. Hywel’s reign will see some important changes in the relationship between Britannia and the rest of Europe, especially the Franks across the Channel. Hywel has been influenced by his mother (a daughter of the Roman Catholic King of Alba) to view Roman Catholicism in a less hostile way than his predecessors, and Hywel will pursue improved relations with the Papacy, negotiating with Pope John X and others and inviting Papal Legates into Britannia with the aim of reconciling the differences between the British Church and that of Rome. This will, however, not be successful, as the British Bishops will refuse to consider any changes of doctrine and liturgy to make their church compliant to Rome, and as the unstable political situation in Rome caused by ascendance of the so-called “Pornocracy”(The “Pornocracy” is a name given to a period of the papacy beginning with the installation of Pope Sergius III in 904. This period is usually considered to have lasted for 60 years, until the death of Pope John XII in 963. During this period, the papacy was under the domination of three major Roman families, the Theophylacts, the Alberics, and the Tusculans. They were in particular under the influence of powerful women in these families...some of whom may have been concubines of the Popes...especially Theodora and her daughters, Marozia and Theodora, of the Theophylact family) interferes with the negotiations as well.

Nevertheless, Hywel’s reign will see the passage of several laws which allow the re-establishment of the Roman Church in Britannia on an official basis (although persecuted by the High Kings since Sigered’s rebellion several decades ago, the Church was not totally extinguished, but “went underground,” and has been operating secretly in Britannia since that time), and relations with the Kings of France in particular will improve dramatically as a result. This will have major effects as time goes on.

Militarily, the biggest problem during Hywel’s reign will continue to be the Vikings. The Kingdom of Britannia will be invaded several times during his reign by Vikings, primarily those based at Dublin in Ireland, and will also face revolts by the Viking settlers living in the northern provinces and subkingdoms of the realm. Although Hywel himself is not much of a warrior, he is ably served first by his uncle, Meurig ap Cynan, and then by his younger brother, Cadfan ap Arthur, and under their able leadership, the Viking threat will be held in check.

Domestically, Hywel will mainly concern himself with rebuilding his kingdom and repairing the damage done by the Vikings over the previous decades. He will re-found many monasteries and other centers of learning which had been destroyed and abandoned during the dark years of the Viking occupation in the northern parts of his Kingdom.

910--High King Hywel II ap Arthur marries Ceolburga, daughter of King Osric of Sussex. Abbey of Cluny established in France.

911--Since Rolf (Rollo) is now Jarl of Rouen, and since they refuse to convert to Christianity, and seek new conquests, many of Rolf's companions settle in Cotentin and Bessin. The Vikings under Sihtric and Ragnald Ivarsson recapture Dublin.

912--A son is born to High King Hywel II ap Arthur and Queen Ceolburga. The boy is named Myrddin ap Hywel, of the House of Emrys (Ambrosius), and is invested as King of Gwynedd shortly thereafter.

914-927--Sihtric and Ragnald Ivarsson launch repeated attacks on the kingdoms of Britannia and Alba from their base in Ireland, sometimes in collusion with Danish rebels in the former kingdom of Jorvik or with Vikings based in the Orkney’s or the Western Isles. These invasions are very destructive, especially in the coastal areas, but the Vikings are not able to get another foothold in Britannia or in Alba. King Constantine mac Aeda of Alba cooperates with High King Hywel II ap Arthur in defending against this ongoing threat. In Britannia, the British brutally put down the Viking rebellions in support of Sihtric and Ragnald when they occur, but High King Hywel attempts to continue the tolerant policies followed toward the Danish settlers in the region, thinking that this will, in the long term, be the best policy for the future peace of Britannia.

915--Death of King Osric of Sussex. He is succeeded by his nephew, Leofric.

916--Death of High King Flann Sinna mac Mael Seachlainn of Ireland. He is succeeded by Niall Glundub mac Aedo. Niall will spend most of his brief reign at war with the Vikings. From Cotentin and Bessin, where they have settled, numerous Scandinavian forces attack the whole eastern region of Brittany.

917--Queen Frederonne, wife of King Charles III “the Simple” of France, dies childless. High King Niall Glundub mac Aedo is killed by the Vikings at the Battle of Kilmashoge. He is succeeded by Donnchad Donn mac Flain, son of former High King Flann Sinna mac Mael Seachlainn. Donnchad’s reign begins a period of weakness during which warfare will ravage much of Ireland, as individual Irish Kings and Norse warlords attempt to assert power over Ireland.

918--Meurig ap Cynan is killed in battle with the Vikings under Ragnald Ivarsson. Command of the British armies falls to Cadfan ap Arthur.

919--King Charles III “the Simple” of France, marries Aneira, the youngest daughter of High King Arthur IV ap Cynan of Britannia and sister of High King Hywel II ap Arthur (in OTL, he married Eadgifu, daughter of King Edward the Elder of England. Obviously, Eadgifu doesn’t exist in the ATL. Although the marriage of the King of France to the sister of the ruler of a “heretic” kingdom might seem odd, it was not without precedent in Frankish history. In the ATL, the same pressures which lead Charles to look across the Channel for a wife rather than marry the daughter of a rival French nobleman still exist, so Aneira seems the most attractive match). Henry I , known as "the Fowler" for his love of hawking, becomes ruler of Germany.

921--A son is born to King Charles III of France and Queen Aneira. The boy is named Louis.

922--Charles III “the Simple” of France is deposed and flees to Lorraine. Robert, Duke of the Franks, is appointed King in his place by a council of powerful nobles. Queen Aneira, fearing for the safety of her child, takes her young son into exile at the court of her brother, High King Hywel II, in Britannia.

922-930--Tomar of Limerick establishes himself as a rival High King against the rule of Donnchad Donn mac Flain. Ireland in civil war.

923--Charles the Simple has gathered an army, and meets King Robert in battle at Soissons. King Robert is killed. Charles does not long enjoy his triumph, however, as he is soon afterward captured by Count Herbert II of Vermandois (an ally of Robert’s) and imprisoned. Duke Rudolph of Burgundy is elected King of France by a council of nobles.

924--Bessin is added to Rolf’s Norman territory. Vikings attack up the Loire Valley deep into France.

925--Some unsubdued Scandinavian troops of Bessin devastate the western part of the Seine colony held by Rolf.

929--Death of King Charles III “the Simple” of France, still imprisoned by his cousin, Count Herbert of Vermandois. King Wenceslas of Bohemia murdered.

930--The Magyars invade France, plundering the region around Rheims. What is possibly the world’s first democratic assembly since ancient Greece...the Alltinget...is founded at Thingvellir, Iceland, by Vikings.

c. 930 onwards--Constantine mac Aeda of Alba, who up until now has been operating as a de facto ally of High King Hywel II ap Arthur of Britannia, is becoming concerned about the power of his neighbor to the South. He secretly negotiates an alliance with Olaf Guthfrithson, the Norse King of Dublin, offering Olaf the hand of his daughter in marriage.

931--Brittany is totally subdued: on the east by the Normans of the Seine and on the west by Normans who have settled on the River Loire. The Normans of the Seine take advantage of this to get a foothold in Cotentin and Avranchin, and on the Channel Islands, in order to control the Scandinavian troops which have to submit to the Jarl of Rouen's authority.

932--Death of Rolf, Jarl of Rouen (and Jarl of the Normans of the Seine). He is succeeded by his son, William Longsword.

933--Cotentin and Avranchin are conceded officially by the King of France to the Normans of the Seine, who are also appointed to the protectorate of Brittany.

935--Crown Prince Myrddin ap Hywel marries Princess Ceridwen, daughter of King Arthuis ap Cadwal of Pengwern. The Magyars invade Burgundy, but are forced to retreat by the army of King Rudolph of France.

936--Death of King Rudolph of France. Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris, arranges to bring Louis, the exiled son of Charles the Simple, from Britannia to take the throne of France (Hugh is, himself, married to Louis’s aunt, Ceinwin, a daughter of High King Arthur IV ap Cynan, and thus has close family ties to the young prince). Louis IV is crowned at Laon in June 936. Louis will prove to be a skilled warrior, as well as a ruthless politician and a crafty diplomat, and will have a long and very successful reign. Otto I (often called Otto the Great) reigns over Germany until 973. His rise to power marks the beginning of the "Ottonian Renaissance."

937--Hugh the Great divorces his wife, Ceinwin, and marries Hedwige of Saxony, daughter of Henry the Fowler of Germany. Relations between Hugh and King Louis IV soon sour.

937-939--War between Alba and Britannia. King Constantine mac Aeda of Alba, in alliance with Olaf Guthfrithson of Dublin, launches an invasion of Strathclyde in 937, laying siege to the capital city of Alcluid. In response, a British army lead by Crown Prince Myrddin ap Hywel, advances northward, and is ambushed while on the march by the Norse and Scots in the hills south of Alcluid. The British suffer a severe and sanguinary defeat, and Crown Prince Myrddin barely escapes with his life (Myrddin is disgraced after this defeat, and, following bitter recriminations in the Cyngor Mawr, is removed as commander of the British armies in favor of his younger brother, Einion ap Hywel. This event, some say, contributed to Myrddin’s later tyrannical rule when he assumed the High Kingship upon the death of his father, High King Hywel II). Alcluid falls to the invaders later that year, and is plundered. However, the allies soon fall to bickering over the spoils, and Olaf Guthfrithson takes his share of the plunder and retires with his Norsemen back to Dublin. Constantine mac Aeda retires across the Forth into his home territory soon thereafter. The next year, a new alliance having been agreed upon, Constantine and Olaf once again invade Strathclyde and Gododdin. Their target is, this time, Din Eidyn, the capital of Gododdin. Einion ap Hywel, the new commander of the British armies in the north, meets them in battle, however, and they are defeated. Olaf is killed, and Constantine is forced to retire back across the Forth. In 939, Einion leads a British army north of the Forth in a retaliatory invasion of Alba. The Scots are defeated again outside their own capital of Scone, and, the British ravage the land. To save his kingdom, Constantine mac Aeda agrees to pay tribute of High King Hywel II and signs a treaty recognizing the Forth as the southern border of his kingdom. Constantine is never again a threat to his southern neighbors.

938--Birth of Hugh of Paris, son of Hugh the Great and Hedwige of Saxony.

939--A son is born to Crown Prince Myrddin ap Hywel and Crown Princess Ceridwen. The boy is named Rhydderch ap Myrddin of the House of Emrys (Ambrosius). King Louis IV of France becomes involved in a struggle with King Otto I of Germany over Lorraine. Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris, allies himself with Otto against Louis. War threatens, but then Louis marries Gerberga of Saxony...Otto’s daughter...and the situation is defused. However, Hugh earns Louis’s undying enmity at this perceived betrayal.

940--Death of King Leofric of Sussex. He is succeeded by his son, Wulfstan. Death of King Harald Fairhair of Norway. His son, Erik Bloodaxe, tries to gain control of Norway for himself, but ultimately fails.

941--A son is born to King Louis IV of France and Queen Gerberga. The boy is named Charles. He will be the first of four children, all sons, the royal couple will produce. In Ireland, Brian mac Cennetig, son of the King of Thomond (an Irish kingdom located on the Shannon River near Limerick), is born.

942--Jarl William Longsword of the Normans is killed by followers of Arnulf I, Count of Flanders, with whom he has been at war since 939. William was attempting to negotiate a peace, and was treacherously killed. He is succeeded by his son, Richard, who will become known to history as “Richard the Unfortunate.” Richard is only ten years old when he succeeds to the Jarldom of Normandy, and his enemies are quick to take advantage of this fact. Death of Donnchad Donn mac Flainn, High King of Ireland. He is succeeded by Congalach Cnogba.

943--King Louis IV of France invades Normandy, seizing the land for himself and deposing it’s Jarl, Richard. Louis has the boy imprisoned. King Constantine mac Aeda of Alba abdicates his throne, and is succeeded by Malcolm mac Donald, son of King Donald mac Constantine (predecessor of Constantine mac Aeda). Malcolm will maintain friendly relations with Britannia, and will cooperate with the British against the Norse during the rebellion of Erik Bloodaxe a few years later.

944--Birth of Odo of Paris, second son of Hugh the Great.

945--Rebellion in Normandy against the rule of King Louis IV. The rebellion is secretly assisted by Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris. The ATL version of Louis IV proves to be a better general than his OTL counterpart, and the rebellion is quickly crushed. Louis discovers the part played in it by Hugh the Great shortly thereafter.

946--An attempt is made to engineer the escape of Richard, the deposed Jarl of Normandy, by a group of Norman and Frankish noblemen. Richard is killed during the attempt, along with conspirators Osmund de Centeville, Bernard de Senlis, Ivo de Bellesme, and Bernard the Dane. King Louis IV declares Richard’s lands permanently escheated to the French crown. Later that year, Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris, is mysteriously killed while hunting (actually assassinated at the orders of Louis IV). Louis has Hugh’s young sons, Hugh and Odo, taken into “protective custody” shortly thereafter. Before the end of the year, young Hugh has also met an unfortunate “accident.” The two-year-old Odo, on the other hand, is spared, but will be strongly encouraged to pursue a career in the church. Odo is presented to the monastery at Cluny, where he is trained as a monk, and where he will spend the remainder of his life. Louis IV claims the lands of Hugh the Great as his own, and will establish his capital at Paris.

946-948--Rebellion of the Danes in Northern Britannia. In 946, Erik Bloodaxe, who has recently been defeated in his attempt to assert control over Norway, secretly lands in Britannia, where he finds refuge among the Danish population in the region of the former Viking Kingdom of Jorvik. Finding much dis-satisfaction among the Danes in the region, who are chafing under British rule, he organizes a revolt, and the rebels capture the city of Eborac, which Erik proclaims as his capital. His revolt will be only temporarily successful, however. In the end, the forces of High King Hywel II, in alliance with those of King Malcolm I of Alba, bring their full weight to bear, and the rebels are besieged in Eborac. Erik Bloodaxe is killed by a British longbowman while fighting on the battlements of Eborac in early 948, and the city surrenders shortly thereafter.

948 onward--In the aftermath of the revolt of Erik Bloodaxe, High King Hywel abandons the tolerant policy pursued so far toward the Danes of the former kingdom of Jorvik. Danish nobles are arrested and executed, and their families are dispossessed of their lands and sold into slavery. Danish commoners are also dispossessed of any lands which they own, which are given as grants to British nobles. The Danes become Taeogion...serfs...and are allotted parcels of land by their new lords, to whom they must pay renders in food and services. Their lords are careful to closely regulate their lives so as to prevent the possibility of future revolt. Gradually, a policy of not granting Danes the right to marry within their own community...they are forced to marry British Taeogs instead...will lead to the full assimilation (and eventual disappearance) of the Danes as a separate ethnic group in northern Britannia. As a result of these policies, over the coming years thousands of Danes will leave Britannia rather than submit to these indignities, and a great many of them will join the migration to the west, settling in Iceland and further swelling populations there.

950--Otto I conquers Bohemia. Also in this year, King Louis IV of France, who has been influenced by the system of government which he saw operating in Britannia during his sojourn there, decides to “reinterpret” the Salic Law which governs the succession of the Kings of France. Up until now, Salic Law has been interpreted to mean that the Kingdom is divided among the sons of the King upon the King’s death. Louis IV, who desires to establish the rule of primogeniture as it exists in Britannia, calls a conclave of legal scholars which, after being influenced by a skillful combination of threats and bribes from the King, declares in favor of the King’s interpretation of the law. Henceforth, the lands belonging to the King of France will remain unified and will pass to the eldest son of the King upon the King’s death. King Louis shortly afterward confers the titles of Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris upon his son, Charles. These titles will become, like the title of King of Gwynedd in Britannia, traditional titles appertaining to the heir to the French throne.

951--Death of High King Hywel II ap Arthur. He is succeeded by his son, Myrddin ap Hywel. Shortly after taking the throne, Myrddin signs a treaty of alliance with King Louis IV of France, with the aim of controlling the Vikings of Normandy...who have been raiding the coast of Britannia, as well as looting in France. Death of King Cennetig mac Lorcain of Thomond. He is succeeded by his eldest son, Mathgamain mac Cennetig.

951-978--Reign of High King Myrddin ap Hywel. Myrddin will prove to be a tyrannical High King, pursuing personal vendettas against those who he feels has wronged him in the past, as well as demanding various tributes and other concessions from the sub-kings, and dissatisfaction with his rule will grow steadily among the increasingly powerful sub-kings and governors of his Kingdom. Great changes to the political structure of the kingdom will occur in his reign as a result.

952-965--Revolt of the Normans against the rule of King Louis IV of France. High King Myrddin ap Hywel, upon request of his ally, King Louis, sends an expeditionary force to Normandy which assists Louis in putting down the revolt.

954--Death of High King Congalach Cnogba of Ireland. He is succeeded by Domnall ua Neill.

955--Death of King Wulfstan of Sussex. He is succeeded by his nephew, who reigns as King Hereweard. Otto I beats the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld. This victory stops their westward advance into Europe.

960--Death of Crown Prince Rhydderch ap Myrddin in battle with the Vikings of Normandy. The 21 year old Rhydderch had not yet married, and High King Myrddin has no other sons, so the right of succession passes to Custennin ap Hywel, brother of the High King. Custennin is invested as King of Gwynedd later that year.

961--Otto I undertakes Italian expedition to defend Pope John XII through the year 964.

962--Pope John XII crowns Otto as Holy Roman Emperor.

963--King Malcolm I mac Donald of Alba dies. Following Malcolm’s death, a civil war breaks out in Alba between his sons and the sons of former King Constantine mac Aeda, several of whom will briefly hold the throne over the next decade...Indulf mac Constantine (who will hold the throne for only one year, 963), Duff mac Malcolm (who will be supreme for 3 years, 964-967), Cuilen mac Indulf (rules 967-971), and finally Kenneth II mac Malcolm, who takes the throne in 971, ending the civil war.

964--Mathgamain mac Cennetig, the new King of Thomond (and elder brother of Brian mac Cennetig), captures the Rock of Cashel, displacing the rival Eoganacht family as rulers of Munster. The displaced Eoganacht King, Maelmuad mac Brain, turns to the Norse of Limerick for help. At the battle of Sulchoid, the forces of Mathgamain and his brother Brian decisively defeat the Norse of Limerick, then follow up by capturing the city itself and burning it to the ground. However, the Norse soon return and rebuild.

965--Crown Prince Charles of France marries Emma, daughter of the King of Italy.

962-967--Count Baldwin III of Flanders dies, bequeathing his lands to King Louis IV of France. When Louis attempts to claim his rights in the region, however, he is opposed by supporters of Baldwin’s infant son, Arnulf, primarily Baldwin’s still-living father and regent for Baldwin’s son, the former Count Arnulf I. Louis IV invades Flanders and, with help from his ally, High King Myrddin of Britannia (who supplies some naval forces and a small contingent of ground troops), subdues Flanders within five years. Arnulf I dies before the end of 965, and the boy Arnulf II is captured in 967. Young Arnulf soon joins Odo of Paris at the Monastery of Cluny, en route for a religious life. Louis, the second son of King Louis IV of France, is installed as the new Count of Flanders.

966--Otto II crowned as heir presumptive to the throne. This political maneuver serves as a preemptive strike against other contenders to Otto I's throne.

969--A son is born to Crown Prince Charles of France. The boy is named Carloman. Carloman will be one of four sons of Charles, and is not initially the Crown Prince (he has two elder brothers, both of whom will die before the end of King Louis IV’s reign).

970--At a meeting of the Cyngor Mawr held at Caer Camulod in this year, the sub-kings (who are supplying a majority of the longbowmen for the new army, and thus have risen considerably in importance over the years) form a united front with certain of the Governors of the High King’s Provinces (the Llywodraethwr)...upon whose votes the High King has always counted to maintain his dominance in the Cyngor Mawr...to force the old and ailing High King Myrddin to accept several pieces of reform legislation.

First, a law is passed stating that the High King can no longer claim control of sub-kingdoms upon extinction of it’s ruling dynasty. Instead, the Cyngor Mawr will consider various claimants to the throne of the kingdom and will vote on which one to accept. The High King retains the right to remove, with the approval of the Cyngor Mawr, the dynasty of any sub-kingdom which rebels against the authority of the High King, but cannot claim the Kingdom for himself. Instead, the rebellious dynasty is to be replaced by another designated by the Cyngor Mawr.

A second law decrees that the kingdoms of Strathclyde, Rheged and Deywr will be restored, with new royal families designated by the Cyngor Mawr. To compensate the High King for the loss of land he thus suffers, it is agreed that the Province of Eborac will be enlarged by restoring land which had belonged to it in earlier times. It is further decided that the Kingdom of Bryneich will also be restored, with a royal house designated by the Cyngor Mawr. To compensate the Kingdom of Gododdin for the loss of territory thus incurred, territory is taken from the Kingdoms of Strathclyde and Rheged and assigned to Gododdin.

A third piece of legislation declares that the boundaries as they exist at this time are to be forever inviolate. Kingdoms can no longer be united by dynastic marriage, although it will be allowed for two kingdoms to be ruled by the same king, should such a thing occur via marriage...in that case, upon the death of the King, if the King has more than one son, the eldest two sons will be allowed to inherit the individual kingdoms; if the King has only 1 son, then the son will be allowed to inherit one kingdom and the Cyngor Mawr will designate a new dynasty to take the throne of the second kingdom. The Cyngor Mawr orders that a new series of boundary stones be erected to mark the new boundary lines.

Fourth, a law is passed stating that the Llywodraethwr (Governors) of the High King’s provinces can only be removed if they rebel against the High King. They can no longer be removed if they vote against the High King in the Cyngor Mawr, or just on the whim of the High King. The Governors will still be appointed by the High King, and their offices will still not be hereditary. The sovereignty of the High King over his personal provinces remains.

Fifth and finally, a law is passed which establishes that the former kingdom of East Anglia, being a region which is still mainly Germanic in population, speech, culture, etc. (unlike Lindsay, which has been under direct rule of the High King for almost three centuries and which is now fairly well assimilated into the mainstream culture of Britannia), should not have a vote on the Cyngor Mawr. The province will remain under direct rule of the High King (in this case acting as King of East Anglia under the authority of the East Anglian Witanagemot).

The final result is an even balance in the Cyngor Mawr between the votes of the personal provinces of the High King and those of the Sub-kingdoms, and a reversal of the trend toward centralization of power in the hands of the High King which had been proceeding since the days of High King Arthur I. Despite the weakening of the High King’s power, however, the government of Britannia will continue to function, for the most part, harmoniously for the better interests of the Kingdom in the years to come.

971--Kenneth II mac Malcolm becomes King of the Scots. He launches an invasion of northern Britannia, but is defeated and forced to sign a treaty of alliance with High King Myrddin.

972--Death of King Hereweard of Sussex. He is succeeded by Cissa II. Death of Crown Prince Custennin ap Hywel. The succession for the High King’s throne passes to Custennin’s son, Rhodri ap Custennin. Rhodri is invested as King of Gwynedd later that year. Rhodri is already married (to Princess Ygraine of Dumnonia) and has a son, named Rhys ap Rhodri (born 965).

973--Otto II, King and Emperor until 983.

976--Mathgamain mac Cennetig, King of Munster, meets with his defeated rival, Maelmuad mac Brain, to attempt a reconciliation aimed at ending the struggle between the rival houses (The Dalcassians...represented by Mathgamain...and the Eoganacht...represented by Maelmuad). He is treacherously seized and murdered by Maelmuad, who then takes back the throne of Munster.

974-980--The War of the Three Henries, a rebellion by Henry, Bishop of Ausburg, Henry, Duke of Bavaria, and Henry, Duke of Carinthia, against Emperor Otto II of Germany. The revolt itself is defeated by 978, but the war itself goes on longer, because King Louis IV of France takes advantage of the situation by invading Lorraine. Louis proves a more difficult opponent, and Otto is defeated and almost captured in 979. A treaty is finally signed in 980 in which Otto renounces his claim to Lorraine.

977-997--The Rise of Brian Boru. Brian mac Cennetig, brother of the murdered King Mathgamain of Munster, begins a war of revenge against Maelmuad mac Brain of the Eoganacht and his Norse allies. Brian’s approach to establishing his control over Munster demonstrates features that will become characteristic of all of his wars: he seizes the initiative, defeats his enemies before they can join forces to overwhelm him, and although he is ruthless and horribly brutal, he seeks reconciliation in the aftermath of victory rather than continuing hostility. After he kills both the ruler of Limerick, Ivar, and Ivar's successor, he allows the Hiberno-Norse in Limerick to remain in their settlement. After he kills Maelmuad, he treats his son and successor, Cain, with great respect, giving Cain the hand of his daughter, Sadhbh in marriage. Cain will a faithful ally for the rest of his life.

Having established control over Munster, beginning in 982, Brian turns to extending his authority over the neighboring provinces of Leinster and Connacht. However, in so doing, he brings himself into conflict with Ireland’s new High King, Mael Sechnaill mac Domnall, whose own power base lies in the province of Meath. For the next fifteen years, High King Máel Sechnaill repeatedly leads armies into Leinster and Munster, while Brian, like his father and brother before him, leads his naval forces up the Shannon to attack Connacht and Meath on either side of the river. Brian suffers quite a few reverses in this struggle, but he learns from his setbacks. He develops a military strategy that will serve him well throughout his career; the coordinated use of forces on both land and water, including on rivers and along Ireland's coast. Brian's naval forces, which include contingents supplied by Hiberno-Norse cities under his control, provide both indirect and direct support for his forces on land. Indirect support involves a fleet making a diversionary attack on an enemy in a location far away from where King Brian plans to strike with his army. Direct support involved naval forces acting as one arm in a strategic pincer, the army forming the other arm.

In 996 Brian finally manages to control the Province of Leinster, which leads High King Mael Sechnaill to reach a compromise with him in the following year. By recognizing King Brian's authority over 'Leth Moga', that is, the Southern Half, which includes the Provinces of Munster and Leinster (and the Hiberno-Norse cities within them), Mael Sechnaill simply accepts the reality that confronts him and retains control over 'Leth Cuinn', that is, the Northern Half, which consists of the Provinces of Meath, Connacht, and Ulster.

As a result of these conquests, Brian mac Cennetig gains the title, Brian Borumha (or as he is known to history, Brian Boru), which means “Brian of the Tributes.”

978--Death of High King Myrddin ap Hywel. He is succeeded as High King by his nephew, Rhodri II ap Custennin. Death of Domnall ua Neill, High King of Ireland. He is succeeded by Mael Sechnaill mac Domnaill, grandson of the former High King Donnchad Donn mac Flainn.

978-1010--Reign of High King Rhodri II ap Custennin. Rhodri’s reign will see the most severe challenge from the Vikings since the invasion lead by Ivar the Boneless in the previous century.

979--The Vikings have established the Tynwald, which is the name of the parliament on the Isle of Man. The island is a major stronghold of Norse settlement.

981--Erik the Red, outlawed in Iceland, settles in a land he names Greenland. The name is designed to lure other colonists. Gradually, Viking settlements are established, and there is a large migration there from Iceland, which, as a result of the increased emigration there as a result of the loss of Jorvik, has gotten very over-populated. Emigration will continue at a steady rate in the years to come, and it is not long before Greenland, as well (which has, itself, very little land suitable for human habitation), is experiencing problems with over-population.

982--Death of King Louis IV of France. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Charles IV. Charles is a virtual carbon-copy of his great father, and will have a successful, if brief, reign. However, his accession is not uncontested. Two of his brothers, Carloman and Louis, revolt against him, claiming that the reinterpretation of the Salic law promulgated by their father in 950 is invalid, and that the kingdom should rightfully be divided among them. Charles’s third brother, Lothair, sides with Charles during the war, which consists of a single battle, at Soissons. The forces of Charles and Lothair are victorious, Carloman is killed and Louis is captured (and later executed). The grateful King Charles grants to Lothair the land of Normandy and the new title, Duke of Normandy, in return for his loyal service. Carloman, son of King Charles, is invested as Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris. Death of Emperor Otto II of Germany. He is succeeded by his infant son, Otto III.

985--Sweyn Forkbeard claims the throne of Denmark after rebelling against and deposing his father, King Harald Bluetooth. Also in this year, Count Borrel II of Barcelona, is attacked by the Muslim forces of Caliph Almanzor. Barcelona is captured and pillaged. Borrel flees to the court of King Charles IV of France, pleading for aid. Borrel’s realm is the former Hispanic March, created by Charlemagne 200 years before. The rulers of the Hispanic March have always sworn fealty to the Kings of the Franks since that time, and Borrel demands the protection of Charles as his feudal lord. Charles complies, and sends a force of French troops into Catalonia to support Borrel’s forces. The Muslims are driven out, and the grateful Borrel pledges continued loyalty to the French crown. As a result, the relationship of the Hispanic March to France will continue much longer than in OTL (in OTL, the Frankish King Lothair spurned Borrel’s request for aid, and Borrel declared independence).

986--The Viking Bjarni Herjulfsson sights North America after being blown off course. He does not land. Also in this year, a momentous event occurs in the history of France. For some time, there has been an ongoing power struggle between the Carolingian royal house in France and the Ottonian Dynasty in Germany. As defender of Rome, Otto I had gained the power to name the clergy in Carolingian territory, and the clergy he had named were not supporting the Carolingians. One particular foe was Adalberon, whom Otto I had elevated to the powerful archbishopric of Rheims. During the reign of Louis IV, Adalberon had tried to negotiate an alliance between the two houses; but the deal had gone bad. By 986, Adalberon has been arrested by King Charles IV and put on trial for treason. He is convicted and sentenced to death. Charles then claims the right to name his successor, which he does. Because a power struggle is going on in Germany over the regency during the minority of King Otto III, Charles is able to get away with this without challenge. From this time forward, the Kings of France gain the unchallenged right to name the clergy in their own territory, and as a result, the political position of the Carolingian Kings is greatly strengthened.

986 onward--In the wake of the discovery of new lands to the west of Greenland by Bjarni Herjulfsson, expeditions (the son of Erik the Red, Leif Eriksson, leads several of these from 990 onward, and he is not alone by any means) are sent out from Greenland and Iceland to explore the new lands. By the year 1000, Viking ships have traveled as far south as Cape Cod, and coastal settlements have been founded in several places.

990--Crown Prince Rhys ap Rhodri marries Cliodhna, daughter of King Brian Boru of Munster.

991-995--Sweyn Forkbeard is temporarily deposed and forced to flee Denmark by King Erik the Victorious of Sweden. Sweyn flees to Scotland, where he joins with other Vikings in making attacks on Britannia.

991-995--Beginning in 991, the Vikings, lead by Olaf Trygvasson of Norway and Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, make a concerted attempt to take back the former Kingdom of Jorvik from the British. They are not successful.

991--A huge Viking fleet and army lead by Olaf Trygvasson, larger than any since the fleet lead by Ivar the Boneless in the previous century, defeats the British fleet in battle off the coast of East Anglia. The army lands at Maldon in East Anglia and, after defeating the local defense force, moves inland. They are met by the forces of High King Rhodri II ap Custennin near Caer Lundein (OTL London) and, in a very sanguinary fight, are defeated and forced to retreat. The Vikings take to their ships and retire to Scotland.

993--Sweyn Forkbeard and Olaf Trygvasson lead a large Viking fleet to attack Din Guardi (OTL Bamburgh). They take the town and use it as a fortified base for attacks into northern Britannia. However, they are not able to significantly expand their conquests beyond this region.

994--Sweyn Forkbeard and Olaf Trygvasson, with a fleet of 94 ships, attempt an attack up the Tafwys (Thames) River with the objective of capturing Caer Lundein. They are met off the Tafwys Estuary by the British and Sussexian fleets and defeated, losing over 40 ships and almost 2,000 men. The Viking chieftains are forced to retire to their base at Din Guardi, where they are afterwards besieged by British land forces.

995--The news of the death of King Erik the Victorious of Sweden causes the temporary abandonment of the Viking attempt to reconquer Jorvik. Sweyn Forkbeard returns to Denmark to re-assert his rule there. At the same time, Olaf Trygvasson takes his fleet to Norway, where he overthrows King Haakon Sigurdssen and takes the throne of Norway. Olaf and Sweyn are soon feuding after Olaf marries Sweyn’s sister, and then tries to take lands from Sweyn in the name of his new wife. Britannia is granted a respite while the Viking Kings fight among themselves. Olaf Skutkonung, who succeeds Erik the Victorious in Sweden, is the first Swedish king to accept Christianity. King Kenneth II mac Malcolm of Alba invades Strathclyde, but is defeated. Later this same year, he is murdered by assassins loyal to Constantine mac Cuilen, son of the former King Cuilen mac Indulf, who usurps the throne. Civil war breaks out again in Alba.

996--Crown Prince Carloman of France marries Judith, daughter of Duke Conan I of Brittany. With the withdrawal of Olaf Trygvasson and Sweyn Forkbeard from Din Guardi, the town is retaken by British forces.

997--A son is born to Crown Prince Rhys ap Rhodri and Princess Cliodhna. The boy is named Gruffydd ap Rhys of the House of Emrys (Ambrosius). A son is born to Crown Prince Carloman of France. The boy is named Lothar. Lothar will be the only surviving son of the future King Carloman II. King Constantine III mac Cuilen of Alba is killed in battle by his cousin, who takes the throne as King Kenneth III mac Duff.

998--Death of King Charles IV of France. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Carloman II of France. Stephen I (Saint Stephen) rules as first King of Hungary.

998-999--Revolt of Maelmorda mac Murchada, King of Leinster, against the rule of Brian Boru. Maelmorda is allied with Sigtrygg Silkbeard, King of Dublin. Brian Boru defeats the allies at the Battle of Glen Mama in 999, and then captures and sacks Dublin. In the aftermath, however, Brian once again opts for reconciliation, allowing Sigtrygg to return to Dublin as ruler, and marrying Maelmorda’s sister (and Sigtrygg’s mother), Gormflaith.

1000--King Olaf Trygvasson of Norway is defeated and killed by the forces of Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark and Olaf Skutkonung of Sweden at the Battle of Svolder.

GO TO PART SEVEN...1000-1100 A.D.

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