BRITONS TRIUMPHANT

An Alternate History Timeline of Dark Age Britain 

PART SEVEN:  1000-1100 A.D.

c. 1000 onward--The Norse settlements in the western lands, which have come to be known as “Markland” from their extensive stands of old-growth forest, continue to expand. Norse exploration of the coastlines of the new lands continues, and penetrations are being into the interior, mainly along the rivers. By the end of the 11^th century, Norse ships will have traveled as far south as the OTL Savannah River, and Norse settlements can be found as far south as Manhattan Island. The settlements make their living largely by shipping timber to Greenland and Iceland…where timber is scarce…and have recently discovered another rich resource…the Grand Banks fisheries. A thriving trade in dried cod with Europe provides revenue for the colonies and further incentive for settlers to seek their fortunes therein.

All has not come without conflict with the native peoples of Markland, known by the Vikings as Skraelings. But the greater numbers of Norse in the settlements, and their use of metal weapons and horses (first transported across the Atlantic aboard Viking Knarrs in the mid 11^th century) give the Norse the edge over the technologically backward natives, and their settlements survive and prosper.

Of course, not all relations between the Norse and the Skraelings are hostile, and there is much trade between the two groups. This has resulted in the acquisition of two more lucrative trade items for shipment to the markets of Europe: furs, and a new plant with addictive properties…tobacco. For their part, the natives gain European grain crops such as wheat, rye, oats, and barley, and European domestic animals such as pigs, cattle, and sheep, which begin slowly to transform the native economies. They also gain a much less welcome present from the Norse…European diseases such as smallpox, influenza, and measles. Epidemics begin to break out among the native tribes, spreading via trade routes from the coast into the interior. The effects will be devastating to the native cultures as whole tribes are decimated by disease.

c. 1000 A.D. onward--King Carloman II of France, in an effort to increase the power of the throne, vigorously pursues his claim to any of the feudal lands as they become vacant, which action usually results in war with a counter-claimant. Carloman is mostly successful in these wars, and by the end of his reign, the French monarch will be in actual control of most of France. Carloman also introduces another reform intended to increase the power of the French throne. Instead of granting his provinces out as hereditary feudal fiefs and appointing new Counts or Dukes to rule them, he appoints Governors instead, men he can remove at his own will, and who will be responsible for collecting the King’s taxes, and administering the provinces in the name of the King. These governorships are not hereditary positions, and Carloman fills them with men he can rely upon to remain loyal to himself and his dynasty.

c. 1000 A.D. The Seljuk Turkish Empire is founded by an Oghuz Turkish bey (chieftain) named Seljuk. The Seljuks are originally from the steppe country around the Caspian Sea.

1000 A.D. onward--Hakim, the Fatimid Caliph of Egypt (whose kingdom also includes the Holy Lands of Palestine, as well as parts of Syria and Western Arabia, most of North Africa, Malta, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearics, and parts of Sicily) begins persecuting Christians and Jews, abandoning the tolerant policies of his predecessors.

1000-1002--Renewed warfare between Brian Boru and High King Mael Sechnaill mac Domnall. Brian defeats Mael Sechnaill, who surrenders the High Kingship to him in 1002. Brian Boru is, at least officially, the ruler of all of Ireland. He is the first Irish High King in nearly 600 years who is not a member of the Ui Neill Dynasty.

1002-1012--High King Brian Boru’s authority is secure in all Ireland save one province…Ulster. The independent sub-kings of Ulster have never recognized his authority, and continue to openly defy him. They are aided by the geography of Ulster. There are three main routes by which an army can invade Ulster, and all three pass through terrain which form chokepoints which heavily favor the defenders. It will take ten years of hard campaigning as a result, but in the end. Brian Boru will subdue Ulster as well and will be master of all Ireland…the first High King in history to truly achieve this.

1002--Death of Holy Roman Emperor and German King Otto III. He is succeeded by his cousin, the son of Duke Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria, who reigns as King Henry II.

1002-1024--Reign of King Henry II of Germany. Henry will fight several successful wars against the Poles and against rebellious Lombard princes and the Byzantine Empire in Italy during his reign, and will make great strides toward strengthening the power of the German King and of the Holy Roman Emperor. Henry's most significant contributions as emperor will come in the realm of Church-State relations and Church administration within the Empire. He supports the bishops against the monastic clergy and aids them in establishing secular rule over broad territories to go with their spiritual power. He makes sure to enforce celibacy amongst the clergy so that the land he grants them will not be passed on to heirs. This ensures that the bishops remain loyal to him and provides a powerful bulwark against rebellious nobles and ambitious family members. Henry will be working with the Pope to call a church council to confirm his new system of politico-ecclesiastical control when he dies suddenly in 1024, leaving this work unfinished. His death also brings and end to the Ottonian Dynasty in Germany, because Henry and his wife, Cunigunde of Luxembourg, were both pious Christians and had taken a mutual vow of celibacy, and thus produced no children.

1003--Herman II, Duke of Swabia, dies childless, his wife having died giving birth to a still-born son years before and he having not remarried (in OTL, Herman had married Gerberga of Burgundy, daughter of Conrad the Pacific and Matilda of France. Matilda not having been born in the ATL, Gerberga was never born, so Herman married someone else who proved less able to bear the strain of childbirth than Gerberga had). King Henry II of Germany awards the Duchy to Ernest, younger son of Margrave Leopold I of Osterreich.

1004--Sweyn Forkbeard, having put down the last troublemakers at home and secured his frontiers, decides to renew his earlier effort to retake the Kingdom of Jorvik. Once again, he sets sail with a large Viking fleet to invade Britannia. This begins a series of yearly campaigns which will be highly destructive, but in the end, they will not be successful.

c. 1005--Olaf Haraldsson, a great grandson of King Harald Fairhair of Norway who is an enemy of King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark, is forced into exile from Norway.

1005--Death of King Cissa II of Sussex. He is succeeded by Aelle IV. King Kenneth III mac Duff of Alba is killed in battle by his cousin, Malcolm II mac Kenneth. Malcolm II will rule, mostly successfully, until 1034.

1006--Olaf Haraldsson offers himself as a mercenary at the court of High King Rhodri II ap Custennin, and the offer is accepted. He proves to be a brave and resourceful fighter against the Danes.

1008--In a major battle against the forces of King Sweyn Forkbeard fought near the city of Eborac in this year, Olaf Haraldsson personally saves the life of High King Rhodri II ap Custennin. In gratitude, and in recognition of Olaf’s bravery and skill in battle, High King Rhodri decides to create an elite guard of heavy infantry, the Arfod Brenhinol (“Royal Guard“), and he places Olaf in command of it. The guard is filled primarily with loyal Britons, Angles and Saxons, with some Norse and Scots. The men are armed mostly with sword and spear, although many carry the formidable Danish Axe instead, and are strongly clad in chain mail hauberks, helmets, and sturdy round shields. In order to keep up with the more mobile traditional British forces, they ride to battle on horseback, but dismount to fight. This guard will prove it’s worth in many conflicts over the succeeding years.

1009--Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, founder of the Druze sect and sixth Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, orders the Holy Sepulcher and all Christian buildings in Jerusalem be destroyed. In Europe a rumor develops that a "Prince of Babylon" had ordered the destruction of the Holy Sepulcher at the instigation of the Jews. Attacks on Jewish communities in cities like Rouen, Orleans, and Mainz ensue.

1010--Death of High King Rhodri II ap Custennin in battle against the Vikings lead by King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as High King Rhys ap Rhodri. Crown Prince Gruffydd ap Rhys is installed as King of Gwynedd.

1010-1015--Reign of High King Rhys ap Rhodri. Although he will reign only five years, High King Rhys will achieve great things during his reign.

1010-1012--Norman Revolt. In this year, the Normans revolt against the rule Duke Lothair, who rules Normandy on behalf of King Carloman II of France. King Carloman asks for support from his ally, High King Rhodri II ap Custennin of Britannia, who supplies naval forces and a small contingent of ground troops. The revolt is easily crushed, and King Carloman decides that enough is enough. He ravages Normandy, sacking towns, torching villages, and hunting down and killing as many Norman nobles as he can find. In their place, he installs Frankish noblemen he knows he can trust. Among those killed in bloody aftermath of the revolt are a minor Norman noble named Tancred de Hauteville, his wife, and their young son, William. Old Duke Lothair also is killed in one of the final battles around Rouen. He dies childless (having received a grievous groin injury at the Battle of Soissons in 982 which rendered him unable to perform his manly duties), and King Carloman declares the Duchy of Normandy to be escheated back to the Crown.

1012--Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, founder of the Druze sect and sixth Fatimid Caliph in Egypt, orders the destruction of all Christian and Jewish houses of worship in his lands.

1012 onward--In the aftermath of the failed Norman revolt, most of the Norman noble families who survive King Carloman’s wrath leave Normandy and begin looking for better prospects elsewhere. Some go to Britannia, where they fight as mercenaries both for and against the British High King in the wars against the armies of Sweyn Forkbeard. Others go to Iberia and Italy, where they become involved in the power struggles there. Some even end up a mercenaries in the armies of the Byzantine emperors, fighting in such far-flung places as Armenia and Syria. But in general, the thoroughness of the ravaging of Normandy means that a great many Normans who existed in OTL don’t survive, and the number of Normans who are able to escape is smaller than the number who emigrated in OTL. They will, as in OTL, influence history in the areas they travel to, but on a smaller scale.

1013-- The second Battle of Caer Leodis (OTL Leeds) is fought between the forces of High King Rhys ap Rhodri of Britannia and King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark. The actions of the Arfod Brenhinol, under the command of Olaf Haraldsson, prove decisive. In a desperate charge against the center of the Danish line, the Arfod Brenhinol breaks the Danish shield wall and King Sweyn Forkbeard himself is cut down...some sources say by the hand of Olaf Haraldsson himself, although this is disputed. His son, Knut, also falls while fighting to recover the fallen body of his father. The Arfod Brenhinol is itself decimated, and is forced to retire soon afterward. But the fall of their leaders disheartens the Danes, and a follow-up charge by the British heavy cavalry finally shatters their line and puts them to flight. The British pursue aggressively, and only a few hundred of the more than 10,000 Viking warriors of Sweyn’s army make it back to their ships and escape back to Denmark.

1013-1014--Maelmorda’s Rebellion. In 1013, King Maelmorda mac Murchada, King of Leinster, who has never fully reconciled himself to being under the thumb of Brian Boru, forms an alliance with another disaffected ruler…his kinsman, the Viking King Sigtrygg Silkbeard of Dublin. Maelmorda and Sigtrygg also make alliances with Jarl Sigurd Lodvesson of the Orkney Isles and with King Brodir of the Isle of Man, both of whom bring strong forces to fight High King Brian. For his part, King Brian also seeks allies, and finds one…his son-in-law, High King Rhys ap Rhodri of Britannia, who, having recently defeated the Viking threat to his own kingdom, is not keen on seeing the Vikings re-establish their power in Ireland. High King Rhys himself leads an expeditionary force of ships and 3,000 troops…including the Arfod Brenhinol, units of the Byddin Mawreddog (the High King’s professional cavalry force), and a force of British longbowmen…to join Brian’s forces in early 1014. The climactic battle of the war occurs on April 23, 1014, outside Dublin, at a place called Clontarf. The heavily outnumbered forces of Maelmorda and his Viking allies are all but obliterated, and an attempt by a group of fleeing Vikings lead by King Brodir of Man to murder High Kings Brian and Rhys while they are giving prayers of thanks for the victory in Brian’s tent is foiled by the guardsmen of the Arfod Brenhinol which are on duty to protect the person of High King Rhys, with Brodir himself being killed. Also surviving the battle is Brian’s eldest and most able son, Murchad. In the aftermath, Brian’s forces capture Maelmorda and Sigtrygg, and, having given each of these men mercy on several occasions in the past only to see them rise up against him again, Brian has them beheaded publicly as an example of what awaits those who refuse to accept the authority of the High King. And High King Rhys ap Rhodri soon leads a British invasion of the Isle of Man (Ynys Manau in the British tongue), ending the Viking kingdom which had been established there, and incorporating the island as a new province of Britannia. Rhys will establish an important naval base there which will greatly enhance the security of Britannia in the future. Also in this year, Henry II of Germany is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.

1013-1020--Civil war in Denmark as the remaining heir of Sweyn Forkbeard, Harald Sweynsson, as well as several powerful nobles, vie for the throne vacated by Sweyn’s untimely demise.

1014--Battle of Mortlach, in which the men of Alba, under King Malcolm II mac Kenneth, inflict a sanguinary defeat on the Vikings. Coupled with the defeat inflicted by the British at Caer Leodis in the previous year, this victory effectively marks the end of the Viking menace to Britannia and Alba.

1014-1026--In the aftermath of the Battle of Clontarf and the executions of Maelmorda of Leinster and Sigtrygg of Dublin, High King Brian Boru consolidates his rule over Ireland. The totality of his victory at Clontarf means that none of the local sub-kings will dare to plot rebellion for the remainder of his reign. On the advice of his son-in-law, High King Rhys ap Rhodri, Brian will create a High Council for Ireland, which will be based on the successful model of the British Cyngor Mawr. Furthermore, laws similar to those enacted by High King Arthur I in Britannia will be passed, establishing the succession of the High Kingship in the House of Brian (the Ua Briain), using the rule of primogeniture. Warfare between individual sub-kingdoms is forbidden by law…a rule which the High King strongly enforces…and the boundaries of the kingdoms are fixed and marked with boundary stones. Brian also uses the church to reinforce his rule, stating that the great monastery at Armagh, in Ulster…powerbase of some of his most powerful enemies…shall be the religious capital of Ireland to which all other monasteries should send the funds they collect. This is a clever move, for it is clear that the supremacy of the monastery of Armagh will last only so long as Brian and his heirs retain the High Kingship. Therefore, it is in the interest of Armagh to support the Ua Briain with all it’s wealth and power, effectively frustrating the schemes of the Ui Neill, former holders of the High Kingship who are primarily based in Ulster, from using those resources to finance their own return to the throne. For the first time in centuries, peace settles on Ireland, which prospers mightily as a result. When King Brian dies, asleep in his own bed, in 1026, the throne passes virtually uncontested to his eldest son, Murchad mac Briain, who will himself have a long and successful reign.

1015--High King Rhys ap Rhodri dies during an outbreak of plague in Caer Camulod. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as High King Gruffydd ap Rhys. In the aftermath of the death of Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark and his son Knut at Caer Leodis, Olaf Haraldsson asks for permission to resign his command of the Arfod Brenhinol, so he can return to Norway and assert his claim to the Kingship there. A grateful High King Gruffydd ap Rhys agrees, and provides money and support for Olaf’s venture. Returning to Norway, he seizes the throne from Earls Sweyn and Erik Hakonarsson of the Ladejarl family, allies of King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark who had seized power in Norway following the death of King Olaf Tryggvasson. Also in this year, Arab Muslim forces conquer Sardinia.

1015-1040--Reign of High King Gruffydd ap Rhys.

1016 onward--In 1016, a band of Norman immigrants in southern Italy lead by a nobleman named Rainulf Drengot is contacted by Melus of Bari, a Lombard nobleman who is leading a revolt against the Byzantines, who currently rule the region. They join the revolt, and inflict a defeat on the Byzantines. More Normans flock to their banner, and thus the Normans become involved in the intricate power struggles between the Pope, the various Lombard Dukes, Counts, and Princes, the Byzantine Catapans of Southern Italy, and the German Emperors, who are also trying to assert control over the region. Over the next several decades, by shrewdly playing off one side against the other, the Normans will become the real power-brokers in the region.

1016--Earls Sweyn and Erik Hakonarsson rebel against King Olaf Haraldsson of Norway, but are defeated and killed at the Battle of Nesjar. Olaf Haraldsson consolidates his rule over Norway. Olaf imposes Christianity on the recalcitrant pagans among his subjects. He also signs a treaty of alliance with High King Gruffydd ap Rhys of Britannia, who sends British priests to assist Olaf in his efforts to Christianize his countrymen. Also in this year, Conrad of Steyr, heir presumptive to the German throne, marries Matilda, daughter of King Carloman II of France.

1017--A son is born to Conrad of Steyr and his wife, Matilda. The boy is named Henry, and will one day rule Germany as King Henry III.

1018--Second Battle of Cannae. The Lombard rebels and their Norman allies are dealt a stinging defeat by Byzantine troops under Catapan Basil Boiannes. Many Normans are killed, and Melus of Bari flees north, first to the protection of the Pope, then to the court of German Emperor Henry II. The power of the Normans in southern Italy is broken...temporarily. But they will soon consolidate their power again. In Denmark, Harald Sweynsson, son of Sweyn Forkbeard, dies, leaving no heirs of his own. The mantel of heir to Sweyn Forkbeard falls on Jarl Ulf Thorgilsson, who is married to Sweyn‘s daughter, Astrid.

1019--A son is born to Jarl Ulf Thorgilsson and Astrid Sweynsdottir. The boy is named for his grandfather, and will be known to history as Sweyn Estridssen. He will one day assert his own claim to the throne of Denmark.

1020--Death of King Carloman II of France. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Lothair. King Olaf Haraldsson of Norway, taking advantage of the chaos still reigning in Denmark, invades said country. He is supported by a fleet sent by his ally, High King Gruffydd ap Rhys of Britannia, and soon defeats the various squabbling Danish jarls. By the end of the year, he is crowned King of Denmark.

1020-1046--Reign of King Lothair of France. Lothair will renew the alliance between his kingdom and Britannia, giving his sister, Adelaide, in marriage to the British High King. He will also pursue his father’s aggressive policy regarding claims against feudal lands which become vacant.

1021--Caliph Hakim disappears during a trip on his donkey to the Muqattam Hills. His donkey is found later, near a well, covered in blood. It is unknown who is to blame, but suspicion rests heavily on his sister, Sitt al Mulk, who will serve as regent for Hakim’s son, Ali az-Zahir, until her own death in 1023. King Olaf Skotkunog of Sweden declares war on King Olaf Haraldsson of Norway and Denmark, beginning a conflict which will last for several years. Also in this year, High King Gruffydd ap Rhys of Britannia marries Princess Adelaide, daughter of King Carloman II of France and sister of the current French King, Lothair.

1024--Death of German King and Holy Roman Emperor Henry II. He is succeeded by a distant cousin of Henry’s, who reigns as King Conrad II.

1024-1039--Reign of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Germany. Conrad’s reign marks the beginning of the rule of the Salian Dynasty in Germany.

1025--Death of King Aelle IV of Sussex. He dies childless, and so is succeeded by his brother, who reigns as King Aethelred. King Lothair of France marries Helie of Semur.

1026--Death of High King Brian Boru of Ireland. He is succeeded by his son, Murchad mac Briain.

1026-1050--Reign of High King Murchad mac Briain of Ireland. Murchad will cultivate close relations with his grand-nephew, High King Gruffydd ap Rhys of Britannia, which will greatly benefit both kingdoms. He also further consolidates the power of the High King in Ireland, putting down a major revolt of the Ui Neill clans of Ulster and Meath in 1030-1033 which breaks the power of that illustrious family forever.

1027--After producing several daughters, Brenhines (Queen) Adelaide of Britannia finally produces a son by High King Gruffydd ap Rhys. The boy is named Cadfan ap Gruffydd, and is installed as King of Gwynedd shortly thereafter. Also in this year, a son is born to King Lothair of France and Queen Helie. The boy is named Henri. Also in this year, King Conrad II of Germany is crowned as Holy Roman Emperor.

1028--Ali ibn Ahmad Jarjarai becomes Vizir under the Fatimid Caliph, Ali az-Zahir. He will be the virtual ruler of the Fatimid Caliphate until 1045, and during his reign will cultivate good relations with the Byzantines and the Christian peoples of the kingdom. He allows the Byzantines to begin reconstruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Emperor Conrad II conducts a successful war against Miesko II of Poland, forcing the return of land which the Poles had taken from the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Henry II. Emperor Conrad has his son, Henry, crowned as King of Germany.

1029--Alp Arslan, "The Lion Hero," is born. Arslan is the son of Togrul Beg, conqueror of Baghdad who made himself ruler of the Caliphate, and great-grandson of Seljuk, founder of the Seljuk Turkish empire. A second son is born to High King Gruffydd ap Rhys, this one to be named Morgan ap Gruffydd. War between Emperor Conrad II of Germany and King Stephen I of Hungary. Conrad is defeated and forced to cede some border territory to Hungary.

1030--Rainulf Drengot is granted the title Count of Aversa, along with the town of that name (located north of Naples in Campania), by Duke Sergius IV of Naples. Thus is established the first Norman-ruled state in southern Italy.

1030-1033--Revolt of the Ui Neill in Ireland. Conchobar ua Mael Sechlainn, grandson of the former High King Mael Sechnaill mac Domnaill (who had been finally ousted from the High Kingship in 1002), forges an alliance with other Ui Neill clans in Meath and Ulster aimed at retaking the High Kingship from the upstart Ua Briain. This leads to a three-year civil war in which the forces of High King Murchad mac Briain are finally victorious. The lands of Meath and Ulster are ravaged, and the Ui Neill’s hold on power in these regions is broken, forever. Murchad installs his own relations on the thrones vacated by dead and fleeing Ui Neill sub-kings. This will prove to be the last major challenge to the rule of the Irish High King and the House of Brian’s claim to the throne.

1031--The Umayyad Caliphate in Spain collapses. Muslim Spain splits into the Taifa kingdoms (Sevilla, Toledo, Saragossa, Granada). A third son is born to High King Gruffydd ap Rhys. The boy is named Cadwaladyr ap Gruffydd.

1034--Death of Malcolm II mac Kenneth, King of Alba. He is succeeded by his grandson, Duncan mac Crinain, who may have had a hand in the death of his predecessor. Duncan’s reign will be unsuccessful and short.

1038--After defeating the Byzantines in battle, Rainulf Drengot declares the independence of Aversa from Naples. Later that year, he conquers Capua, throwing out it’s Lombard ruler, Prince Pandulf IV. Rainulf declares himself to be the Prince of Aversa and Capua, a title which is soon after recognized by the Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad II. Rainulf and the Normans now rule the largest polity in southern Italy. The Seljuk Turks become established in Persia.

1038-1039--Byzantine campaign in Sicily. Byzantine forces under General Georgios Maniakis attempt to oust the Muslims from Sicily. Unlike in OTL, their army contains no Norman mercenaries (the sons of Tancred de Hauteville not being alive at this time in the ATL, the troops who were, in OTL, loyal to them have allied themselves to Rainulf Drengot instead, and are engaged in Rainulf’s campaigns against the Byzantines and Lombards in southern Italy). The primary action is the unsuccessful Byzantine siege of Syracuse, in which General Maniakis himself is killed during a sally by Emir Abdallah in 1039. With the death of Maniakis, the loose alliance he had forged between the Byzantines and the local Lombards against the Arabs collapses, and the campaign is abandoned shortly thereafter.

1039--King Duncan mac Crinain of Alba invades Strathclyde. He is soundly defeated by the northern British defense forces under the Dux Britanniarum, King Owain III ap Lludd of Gododdin, without the need for the direct intervention by the High King’s forces, and barely escapes with his life. Death of Holy Roman Emperor Conrad II. His son, Henry, had been crowned King of Germany back in 1028. The title of Holy Roman Emperor is, for the time being, vacant…and will remain so for the remainder of Henry’s reign.

1039-1046--Reign of King Henry III as sole ruler of Germany. Unlike his OTL version, the Henry who exists in the ATL is a weak and ineffectual king. His reign starts off with a major failure, when he is unable to gain the recognition of Aribert, Archbishop of Milan, who is able to persuade the Italian nobility not to recognize Henry as King of Italy. He will spend most of his short reign warring unsuccessfully in Italy, Bohemia and Hungary, and will never be crowned as Holy Roman Emperor…the first German King in centuries not to hold this title.

1039-1053--The Normans, under the leadership first of Rainulf Drengot, and, after his death in 1045, under that of his nephews, Asclettin Drengot and Rainulf Trincanocte, and his grand-nephew, Richard Drengot (son of Asclettin), invade Apulia and Calabria in southern Italy, throwing out the Byzantine garrisons and establishing themselves as rulers. They also are not shy about dispossessing the local Lombard counts and Dukes of their possessions, when the opportunity arises. And they will interfere in the power struggles over the control of the Papacy which take place during these years. The Normans are making themselves many powerful enemies.

1040--Death of High King Gruffydd ap Rhys. He is succeeded by his 13-year old son, who reigns as High King Cadfan ap Gruffydd. King Duncan mac Crinain of Alba, disgraced by his ignominious defeat at the hands of the British the previous year, attempts to put down a rebellion by his cousin, Macbeth mac Findlaich, Mormaer of Moray and a maternal grandson of King Malcolm II mac Kenneth. In the ensuing battle, Duncan is killed, and shortly afterward, Macbeth seizes the throne for himself. He will prove to be a successful ruler. Duncan’s wife, Suthen, flees with her sons, Malcolm and Donald, to the court of High King Cadfan ap Gruffydd.

1040-1041--Reign of High King Cadfan ap Gruffydd. High King Cadfan will rule for only two years, and since he is a minor, actual rule will be by a regent (his mother, Brenhines Adelaide) during his entire reign. As a result, he will accomplish little of note.

1041--Death of High King Cadfan ap Gruffydd during an outbreak of plague in Caer Camulod. He is succeeded by his brother, who reigns as High King Morgan ap Gruffydd. Sweyn Estridssen, grandson of Sweyn Forkbeard, leads a rebellion in Denmark against the rule of Olaf Haraldsson of Norway. The rebellion is not successful, and Sweyn flees to the court of King Henry III of Germany.

1041-1050--Reign of High King Morgan ap Gruffydd. Morgan is also a minor, being only twelve years of age at his ascension to the throne, and his mother will rule as regent during most of his reign. High King Morgan will also have a relatively short reign, and little of note will occur during his tenure.

1042-1048--King Henry III of Germany, seeing what he thinks is an opportunity to expand his power, gives support to another attempt by Sweyn Estridssen to seize the throne of Denmark. In exchange for Sweyn’s oath of fealty to the German King, Henry sends a German army which invades Denmark from the south in cooperation with Danish rebels against the Norwegians. The German troops prove decisive, and the Norwegians are defeated and forced to retreat from Denmark in October, 1042. Sweyn Estridssen is shortly afterward crowned as King of Denmark. Olaf Haraldsson, however, has not given up his claim to the throne, and war will continue for the next six years. Fought mainly at sea, it proves indecisive. Finally, a treaty is signed in March 1048, officially recognizing Sweyn Estridssen as King of Denmark.

1043--King Macbeth mac Findlaich of Alba has been cultivating improved relations between himself and the new British High King, Morgan ap Gruffydd, since the latter assumed the throne of Britannia two years before. In this year, the two monarchs sign a treaty of alliance. As a gesture of good will, High King Morgan expels the former Queen Suthen of Alba and her sons, Malcolm mac Duncan and Donald mac Duncan, who had sought refuge at the High King’s court when Macbeth seized the throne of Alba in 1040. Suthen secretly returns to Alba, where she takes refuge at the Monastery of Saint Columba at Dunkeld, where they are under the protection of the Abbot...Crinain, father of the former king Duncan. King Henry III of Germany marries Agnes of Poitou.

1044--King Henry III of Germany and Queen Agnes produce a son, who they name Conrad. Pope Benedict IX is forced to abdicate following a rebellion in Rome. He is replaced as Pope by John, Bishop of Sabina, who reigns as Pope Silvester II.

1045--Crinain, father of former King Duncan of Alba, leads a revolt against the rule of King Macbeth mac Findlaich, aimed at installing his grandson, Malcolm mac Duncan, on the throne. Crinain is defeated and killed. Macbeth soon thereafter enters the Monastery of Saint Columba, where he finds Queen Suthen and her sons in hiding. He has Suthen and young Malcolm and Donald secretly put to death. Without Duncan’s offspring to trouble him, Macbeth will rule Alba without further challenge for the next twenty-five years. Indeed, his throne will be so secure that he will be able, in 1050, to make a pilgrimage to Rome and return to find his kingdom still quiet and secure despite his absence. His legacy will be to bring an end to the constant cycle of regicide and usurpation which has constantly plagued Alba since it’s foundation, and the beginning of a stable government for Alba. In April of this year, the former Pope Benedict IX returns to Rome at the head of an army and expels his rival, Silvester II. Benedict IX reclaims the Papacy. He then sells it to John Gratian the following month. Gratian becomes Pope Gregory VI.

1046--Death of King Lothair of France. He is succeeded by his eldest son, who reigns as King Henri. Henri is, at the time, only nineteen years of age, and there is some question as to whether he will be accepted as king without challenge. But in the end, Henri’s own charismatic personality wins out, and at a conclave of the great nobles and bishops of France held at Laon, nobody challenges his right to the succession. Former Pope Benedict IX decides he wants the papacy back, raises another army, and forces Pope Gregory VI from Rome. Gregory refuses to abdicate, however, and there are now two rival popes. And to make matters even more chaotic, former Pope Silvester II also claims that he was wrongfully ejected from the papacy, and starts raising forces to enforce his claim. Benedict sends a message to King Henry III of Germany, offering him the Holy Roman Imperial crown if he will support Benedict’s claim to the papal throne. Henry jumps at the chance, and marches south. However, he is killed in battle north of Rome, and his army returns to Germany, leaving the Imperial throne vacant and the papal dispute unresolved.

1046-1080--Reign of King Henri of France. Henri will continue his predecessor’s policy of aggressively pursuing the royal claim to feudal fiefs which become vacant during his reign, further consolidating the power of the French throne. He also will take advantage of the civil war which is raging in Germany during the first decade of his reign, giving money and military support to Otto of Nordheim in exchange for Otto’s agreement to recognize the French king’s claim to the throne of Burgundy and the separation of that kingdom from the Holy Roman Empire (which has been a de facto fait accompli for some time, but which has still, in a de jure sense, been disputed by the German Kings).

1046-1055--Civil war in Germany. In 1046, King Henry III of Germany is killed while campaigning in Italy, trying to enforce his claim to the kingship of Italy and to the Holy Roman Imperial Throne. His son, the infant prince Conrad, is rejected by the German nobles as his successor, and no clear candidate emerges to claim the throne. The young prince soon meets an unfortunate “accident,“ and war breaks out as the powerful magnates of Germany fight each other for the kingship. This will continue for nine years. Finally, in 1055, Otto of Nordheim, Duke of Bavaria, emerges victorious, and is crowned as King Otto IV of Germany at Mainz.

1046-1049--Period of the Tri-Papacy, during which Benedict IX, Silvester II, and Gregory VI all set themselves up on rival thrones and claim the papacy. With the civil war raging in Germany and no Holy Roman Emperor on the throne, this leads to a major crisis within the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Gregory VI has the least support from the Italian nobility among the three claimants, and is soon forced into exile in Germany, taking with him a young monk named Hildebrand…the future Pope Gregory VII. He takes up residence at Toul (in Lorraine), where he is given hospitality by Bruno, Bishop of Toul, a relative of former Emperor Conrad II. When Gregory VI dies in 1048, Hildebrand remains with Bishop Bruno, with whom he is very impressed.

1047--At the suggestion of his advisors, King Henri of France begins seeking a wife. He runs into a problem…all of the eligible princesses available at this time in the regions near to France are related to Henri by illegal degrees of kinship. Therefore, he sends an embassy to the court of Yaroslav I, Prince of Kiev and Novgorod, seeking a suitable match. The embassy returns with a lovely Russian princess named Anna. The two are married at Paris on Christmas Day, 1047. Also in this year, King Aethelred of Sussex dies childless. Desiring to prevent the possibility of civil war, in his will, he leaves his kingdom to High King Morgan ap Gruffydd of Britannia, and this is agreed upon by the Witanagemot of Sussex shortly after Aethelred’s death. As with the case of East Anglia, Sussex becomes a province under direct rule by the High King, without a vote in the Cyngor Mawr (the British High Council).

1048--A son is born to King Henri of France and Queen Anna. The boy is named Philip by his Russian mother. He will be the first of six children (including three sons) the royal couple will produce. Following the disastrous end of the war with Denmark, Olaf Haraldsson is overthrown by a popular rebellion. He is caught and killed as he tries to flee the country. Two contenders…Olaf’s son Magnus, and his uncle, Harald Sigurdsson, claim the throne, and a brief but violent civil war erupts. Harald Sigurdssen, a mighty and experienced warrior and charismatic leader, defeats the forces of Magnus in a naval battle fought off the coast near the recently founded town of Oslo, and is crowned as King of Norway in July 1048. Magnus escapes to the court of High King Morgan ap Gruffydd of Britannia.

1049--In late 1048, Pope Benedict IX’s forces defeat those of Pope Silvester II and Silvester is killed. But shortly afterward, Benedict himself is overthrown by a rebellion of the Roman people, and they send an embassy to Otto of Nordheim, Duke of Bavaria, who is, at the time, temporarily ascendant in Germany and recognized by many as the rightful king, asking him to appoint a new Pope. Hearing of this, Hildebrand travels to see Otto, where he makes an impassioned plea on behalf of Bishop Bruno. Otto is impressed, and decides to nominate Bruno as Pope. Bruno stipulates as a condition of his acceptance that he should first proceed to Rome and be canonically elected by the voice of clergy and people. Setting out shortly after Christmas 1048, he is joined by the young monk Hildebrand. Arriving in pilgrim garb at Rome in February 1049, he is received with much cordiality, and at his consecration assumes the name of Leo IX.

Leo will be significant in that he strongly argues against the practice of simony (the sale of church offices, which is a major fund-raising mechanism for most medieval kings at the time), beginning a process which will lead to a major reform later in the century. He is also very concerned about the activities of the Normans in southern Italy, and soon begins forming a coalition against them, an act which will have major consequences for the Papacy and the world.

Also in this year, Magnus Olafsson, in exile at the court of High King Morgan ap Gruffydd of Britannia, marries Olwen merch Hywel, a cousin of High King Morgan.

1049-1064--War between Norway and Denmark. King Harald Sigurdsson of Norway tries to reassert Norwegian rule over Denmark, leading to a long but indecisive war. A treaty is finally signed in 1064 in which Harald relinquishes his claims to the Danish throne, recognizing the right of King Sweyn Estridssen to rule in Denmark.

1050--Death of High King Morgan ap Gruffydd. He dies unmarried and childless, and is succeeded by his brother, who reigns as High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd. Death of High King Murchad mac Briain of Ireland. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Toirdhealbhach mac Murchad ua Briain.

1050-1086--Reign of High King Toirdhealbhach mac Murchad ua Briain of Ireland. Toirdhealbhach will have a long and relatively peaceful reign as High King of Ireland. He will be a major patron of the arts and of learning, giving rich endowments to several monasteries and setting up several new scribal schools, and his reign will be remembered in history as one of the high points of Irish civilization.

1050 onward--Pope Leo IX, with the assistance of Hildebrand (the future Pope Gregory VII) begins what will eventually be called the “Gregorian Reform,” asserting the primacy of the Pope and arguing against simony and clerical marriage. Over the next few years he will hold several “Easter Synods” in which these views will be expressed. He is aided in this by the fact of the civil war in Germany, which means that the likelihood that the German King will interfere directly is very remote.

c. 1050 onward--The first agricultural revolution of Medieval Europe begins in 1050 AD with a shift to the northern lands for cultivation, a period of improved climate from 700 AD to 1200 AD in western Europe, and the widespread use and perfection of new farming devices. Technological innovations include the use of the heavy plow, the three-field system of crop rotation, the use of mills for processing cloth, brewing beer, crushing pulp for paper manufacture, and the widespread use of iron and horses. With an increase in agricultural advancements, Western towns and trade grow exponentially and Western Europe returns to a money economy.

1050-1078--Reign of High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd. Cadwaladyr, unlike his brothers and predecessors, does not come to the throne as a minor, and rules in his own right from the beginning of his reign. He will prove to be a strong king, which is fortunate, as during his reign will come the last major Viking attack on Britannia. Cadwaladyr will renew his father’s treaty of friendship with King Macbeth of Alba, a treaty which will prove important.

1051--As a gesture toward sealing his alliance with the King of Alba, High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd of Britannia marries Princess Sitheag inghean Macbethad, daughter of King Macbeth of Alba. A son is born to Magnus Olafsson and his wife, Olwen, in exile at the court of the British High King. The boy is named Haakon Magnusson.

1052--Pope Leo IX travels to Germany, seeking aid against the Normans. But Germany is still in the throes of civil war, and he is unable to gain any official support. A few hundred Swabian volunteers do return with him, however. In Ireland, Murchada Mac Diarmata is made sub-King of Leinster by High King Toirdhealbhach mac Murchad ua Briain, establishing the McMurrough dynasty on the throne of that kingdom.

1053--A son is born to High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd and Queen Sitheag of Britannia. The boy is named Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr, and is shortly afterward invested as King of Gwynedd. The boy will be strongly influenced by his Roman Catholic mother, which will have far-reaching consequences for the future. Also in this year, Pope Leo IX forms a coalition of Lombard rulers against the Normans of southern Italy. Leo also forges an alliance with Byzantine Emperor Constantine X Doucas, whose territories in Italy the Normans are busily conquering. The Byzantine general, Argyrus, leads an army north from Apulia, while Leo and his Italians, Swabians, and Lombards, advance south from Rome. Because of some internal squabbling among the Normans…Richard Drengot not commanding the level of respect among the Normans that men like Humphrey de Hauteville and Robert Guiscard did in OTL…the armies of Leo and Argyrus are allowed to unite, near the city of Foggia, in June 1053. In the ensuing battle which takes place a few days later outside Foggia, the heavily outnumbered Normans…who have been able to muster less than 3,000 men against more than 15,000 for their enemies…are virtually annihilated. Among the dead is Richard Drengot and most of his relations. Only a few hundred escape, and Norman power in southern Italy is broken, forever. The surviving Normans either flee the area, or end their lives as mercenaries in the armies of local Lombard lords. The principality of Capua and the County of Aversa are given to Pandulf VI, son of, their former Lombard ruler, Pandulf IV (who had, himself, died three years before, in exile).

1053 onward--In the aftermath of the destruction of the power of the Normans at the Battle of Foggia, the Byzantine Empire retakes most of Apulia and Calabria. Although their hold on the area will never be secure…constant uprisings by the local Lombard counts, dukes, and princes will make a firm Byzantine hold on the region an illusion…there is an aftereffect which will have major consequences in years to come. With the return of the Byzantines and the ejection of the Normans, the Greek churches in the area, which had been forced to adopt Latin customs (such as the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist, much to the irritation of Patriarch Michael I Cerularius of Constantinople) by the Normans, are allowed to return to Greek practice. As a result, Patriarch Michael, who had been on the brink of ordering the closure of Latin churches in the East in retaliation, reconsiders. Patriarch Michael had also considered ordering Archbishop Leo of Ochrid, leader of the Bulgarian Church, to compose a letter condemning the “Judaistic” practices of the West, with the intention of sending this to all Western Bishops, including the Pope. With his temper cooled by the restoration of Greek churches in Italy, he again reconsiders and decides against this course of action. In this decision he is strongly encouraged by Emperor Constantine, who wants to maintain the amicable relations between himself and the Papacy which exist as a result of their joint action against the Normans.

1054--Death of Pope Leo IX. He is succeeded by Frederick of Lorraine, who takes the papal throne as Pope Stephen IX, and who continues the policies pursued by Leo. He will vigorously pursue the Gregorian Reforms throughout his reign.

1055--The Seljuk Turks, under Alp Arslan, defeat the Buyids (Shiites), invade Mesopotamia and install themselves in Baghdad under the suzerainty of the Abbasids.

1055-1083--Reign of King Otto IV of Germany. Otto will have a long and successful reign, and will be crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1058. Beginning of the Bavarian Dynasty. Otto rules over a Germany which has been severely weakened by almost a decade of civil war. Much of his reign will be spent consolidating his own power within Germany, which means he will have little means nor inclination to interfere much outside of Germany. But Otto will prove to be a very pragmatic and wise ruler. For example, the concordat which he will reach with the Papacy will prove both beneficial and long-lasting. And, in order to better concentrate his attention on his power base in Germany, he will formally sever the relationship of Italy to the rest of the Holy Roman Empire. Instead, he will install his second son, Henry, as King of Italy, marrying him off to Matilda, daughter of Boniface III, Margrave of Tuscany, the most powerful north Italian prince of the time.

1058--Death of Pope Stephen IX. At his death, the Roman nobles elect John Minicus, Cardinal Bishop of Velletri, as Pope Benedict X. But Hildebrand, who has become somewhat of a “power behind the throne” in the church, opposes Benedict’s election, and urges Gerhard of Burgundy, the Bishop of Florence, to claim the papal throne. Gerhard, who has the military support of King Otto IV of Germany, is successful in forcing Benedict out, and is installed as Pope Nicholas II. In gratitude, Nicholas crowns Otto as Holy Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, 1058.

1059--Pope Nicholas II calls a Church Council at the Lateran Palace in Rome. At this council, new rules for the election of future Popes are codified. The new rules state that the Cardinal Bishops must confer to pick a candidate for the next election. Additionally, the rules state that the other clergy and laity have a right to give their candidate also, but that the College of Cardinals is designated as the sole body of electors. Finally, the rules state that the conclave must meet in Rome unless the cardinals are in dire straits. Nicholas has, through skillful diplomacy…conducted largely by Hildebrand…gained the support of Emperor Otto IV (who is, at the time, weighing a major change of policy regarding Italy) for this reform. This will remove the election of Popes from the political sphere and make it solely a church matter in the future.

1061--Death of Pope Nicholas II. In the first election under the new rules, Anselmo da Baggio, Bishop of Lucca, is elected. He will reign as Pope Alexander II. Since Emperor Otto IV had supported the electoral reforms in 1059, he does not nominate his own candidate for Pope, and gives his blessing to the election. Pope Alexander will continue the Gregorian Reforms, working against simony and promoting clerical celibacy.

1063--Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV has been placed in a quandary by the strong position Pope Alexander II is taking against the practice of simony…specifically, the issue of lay investiture of bishops and other church officials within the Empire. The sale of these offices is a major source of funding for the Emperor, and the practice also guarantees that only those loyal to the Emperor end up in powerful church positions. On the other hand, he can understand the position of the Pope that simony is a sin, and does not want to get involved in a major controversy which could end up weakening his own power. Therefore, in 1063, he meets with Pope Alexander II in Milan to work out a compromise agreement. Otto finds the grounds for a compromise in the distinction which has always been made between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the church prelates. Employing the distinction, Otto agrees to give up his right to invest his bishops and abbots with their Church positions, but not his right to require them to come and do homage to the King Emperor…and pay a fee…for their rights over the landed properties tied to the episcopate. Therefore, the King can continue to receive the revenues and loyalty he needs without committing the sin of simony. After much discussion, Pope Alexander agrees, and a major brewing crisis is defused. Although it seems that Emperor Otto is submitting to the will of the Pope, ironically, the real loser in the agreement will be the Papacy, as the affair will serve to finally crystallize Otto’s decision to “wash his hands” of Italian affairs and create a Kingdom of Italy separate from the Holy Roman Empire. The Kings of Italy will become the chief defenders of the Pope against the influence of the unruly Italian nobility…at a price. Within a few decades, the temporal power of the Popes will be greatly diminished and they will rule little territory outside the city of Rome itself.

1063 onwards--Following the example of Emperor Otto IV‘s Concordat of Milan, many of the various kings and rulers of western Europe make agreements with the Church ending the practice of simony. The major exception is France, where Kings Henri and Philip refuse to give up their rights to invest the bishops within their realm.

1064--The Seljuk Turks invade Armenia.

1065--Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV arranges the marriage of his son, Henry, with Matilda, daughter of the powerful Margrave Boniface III of Tuscany (Boniface, who had, in OTL, been assassinated in 1052, is still alive at this time in the ATL). Later that same year he has Henry crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at Pavia, signifying his succession as King of Italy. In exchange for his new crown, Henry is required to renounce all claim to the crown of Germany, and Otto announces the formal separation of Italy from the Holy Roman Empire, stating his intent that this should be a perpetual separation. In the end, this will prove beneficial for both Germany and Italy, allowing each to pursue their separate destinies and for the ruling dynasties there to consolidate their power and establish stable governments.

1065-1105--The reign of King Henry III of Italy. Henry of Nordheim (known as King Henry III in Italy), will prove to be a highly successful ruler. The union of King Henry with Matilda of Tuscany will be prove to be crucial to his success. The union will be a fruitful one, and Matilda will bear three strong sons and four daughters for Henry, allowing him to establish a strong dynasty. Furthermore, with the wealth and military resources he gains as a result of his union with Matilda, King Henry III will successfully enforce his rule over the Maritime Republics of Pisa and Genoa, capturing Pisa in 1170 and Genoa in 1174. As a result he gains control of their naval and merchant fleets. With the revenues he gains thereby, he will be able to successfully crush all resistance to his rule by the local Lombard nobility. As mentioned elsewhere, he will also achieve a dramatic reversal of the balance of power between the Italian crown and the Papacy. The end result of these achievements is the creation of a relatively unified and stable state before the end of his reign, which he will pass on to his successors. The one gem which Henry would like to have for his crown, but fails to get during his lifetime, is the Republic of Venice, which will resist the rule of the Kings of Italy for many years after Henry‘s death. But that will be a minor hiccup in what is, overall, an outstanding beginning for the new Italian dynasty.

1066-1067--In 1066, the powerful Rudolph of Rheinfelden, Duke of Swabia, engineers a revolt against Emperor Otto IV. Rudolph sees Otto’s recent concessions to the Pope at the Concordat of Milan, and his separation of Italy from the Empire, as signs of weakness, and a number of other powerful magnates agree with him. The uprising is not successful, however, and after several inconclusive battles, the rebels are decisively defeated outside Mainz the following year. Emperor Otto uses the revolt as the excuse to do a bit of “housecleaning” in Germany, removing disloyal vassals and replacing them with more reliable men. It will prove to be the last major challenge to Otto’s rule in Germany.

1067--King Harald Sigurdsson of Norway, having made peace with Sweyn Estridssen of Denmark, conceives a grandiose scheme. He proposes a joint venture to recapture the Viking Kingdom of Jorvik in Britannia, and after much negotiation, King Sweyn…who has a desire to avenge the death of his grandfather…agrees. In late June, a joint Norwegian and Danish fleet of almost 400 ships and approximately 20,000 men meets the British fleet in battle off the coast of Deywr. The defending British squadron is overwhelmed and scattered, although the Vikings take significant losses as well. Nevertheless, the Vikings are able to land, and advance rapidly on the city of Eborac. They capture the city in July 1067, sacking it so thoroughly that the city won‘t be occupied again for some time afterward. But their triumph will be short-lived. High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd calls on his ally, King Macbeth of Alba, for assistance, and the Scottish king comes south with his army, which links up with the British host, under the command of Cadwallon ap Arthur (cousin and chief general of High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd), near Din Guardi (OTL Bamburgh). In August, the combined armies of Britannia and Alba…a host of over 30,000 men, lead by Cadwallon and King Macbeth…meets the Vikings north of Eborac. The Viking host, which, with the losses sustained in the naval battle and afterward, is now outnumbered by nearly two-to-one, is defeated and virtually annihilated. Only about 50 shiploads of Vikings escape back to their ships…including King Sweyn Estridssen. King Harald Sigurdsson is not so lucky, being skewered on the lance of a British cavalryman while trying to rally his men for a final effort. His son, Olaf, dies with him. This will prove to be the last major Viking attack on Britannia.

1068-1070--Civil War in Norway. In the aftermath of the defeat of the Viking attack on Britannia, Norway has been temporarily left king-less. King Sweyn Estridssen of Denmark attempts to impose himself as ruler there, fighting against Magnus Haraldsson, son of the dead king Harald Sigurdsson. But there is another candidate…Magnus Olafsson, son of Olaf Haraldsson…who has returned from exile in Britannia, with the support of a British fleet sent by High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd of Britannia. In the end, Magnus Olafsson has more support from the native Norwegian nobility, who are not keen on being ruled by a Danish King, and who are not keen on Magnus Haraldsson, either. Magnus Olafsson is successfully installed as King of Norway by the end of 1070.

1068--Duke William VIII of Aquitaine divorces his wife, Matoeda, to marry Princess Cecile, eldest daughter of King Henri of France (in OTL, he married Hildegarde of Burgundy…who does not exist in the ATL).

1069--A son is born to Duke William VIII of Aquitaine. The boy is named William, and will one day rule as William IX of Aquitaine. Unlike the OTL William IX, the ATL version will have no particular interest in music, and will not be known as William the Troubadour. More importantly, he will be a ruthless, shrewd, and militarily gifted man, and will pose a grave threat to the French monarchy. Also in this year, Lulach mac Gille Coemgain, step-son and heir apparent of King Macbeth mac Findlaich of Alba (who has, himself, no surviving male children), dies during an outbreak of plague in Alba. His son, Mael Snechtai mac Lulaich, becomes the new heir apparent to the Scottish throne.

1070--Death of King Macbeth mac Findlaich of Alba. He is succeeded by his step-grandson, Mael Snechtai mac Lulaich (Macbeth’s step-son Lulach having died the previous year). Like his predecessor, Mael Snechtai will maintain good relations with his powerful neighbor to the south, and he will rule, mostly uneventfully, until his own premature death (he will drown while crossing a rain-swollen stream while hunting) in 1085. Also in this year, Vladimir II Monomakh, Grand Prince of Kiev, marries Anna of Smolensk, a local Russian princess (in OTL, he married Gytha, daughter of King Harold Godwinson of England, but in the ATL, the House of Wessex was extinguished long ago, and Gytha, of course, does not exist).

1071--Battle of Manzikert. Alp Arslan leads an army of Seljuk Turks against the Byzantine Empire near Lake Van. Numbering perhaps as many as 100,000 men, the Turks take the fortresses of Akhlat and Manzikert before Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes can respond. Although Diogenes is able to recapture Akhlat, the siege of Manzikert fails when a Turkish relief force arrives and Andronicus Ducas, an enemy of Romanus Diogenes, refuses to obey orders to fight. Diogenes himself is captured and released, but he will be murdered after his return to Constantinople. Partly because of the defeat at Manzikert and partly due to the civil wars following the murder of Digoenes, Asia Minor is left open to Turkish invasion.

Also in this year, Kings Magnus Olafsson of Norway and Sweyn Estridssen of Denmark agree on a treaty recognizing each other’s positions on their respective thrones. To seal the treaty between the two Kings, Magnus’s son, Haakon, wed’s Sweyn’s daughter, Ingerid, later that same year. And also in this year, a son is born to King Henry III of Italy (as Henry of Nordheim is reckoned in the ATL…Holy Roman Emperor Henry II is reckoned to be King Henry II of Italy. King Henry III of Germany never was recognized as King of Italy or as Holy Roman Emperor, despite having claimed these titles, so Henry of Nordheim is reckoned to be King Henry III) and Queen Matilda. The boy is named Otto, and is third child and first son the couple have produced (they will eventually produce three sons and four daughters).

1071-1085--The Seljuk Turks conquer most of Anatolia, Syria and Palestine. They begin to actively interfere with Christian pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land.

1073--Death of Pope Alexander II. He is succeeded by Hildebrand, who takes the papal throne as Pope Gregory VII. A son…the first of several…is born to Haakon Magnusson, Crown Prince of Norway, and his wife, Ingerid. The boy is named Eirik Haakonsson. Also in this year, Philip, Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris (and Crown Prince of France) marries Bertha of Holland, daughter of Count Floris I of Holland.

1073-1083--Papacy of Gregory VII. Much of Gregory’s papacy will be taken up with a conflict with Kings Henri and Philip of France over the practice of lay investiture within that kingdom, and with the Kings of Italy over the issue of the temporal power of the Papacy. Gregory will also make a historic agreement with High King Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr in Britannia, which will lead…after much conflict…to the eventual reunion of the British Church with Roman Christianity. Gregory will also embrace closer relations with the Byzantine Emperors during his Papacy, and work to improve relations between the Eastern and Western branches of the Church. In this, he will be somewhat successful. Finally, he will issue a call for a “Crusade” to free the holy places in Jerusalem from the oppressions of the Seljuk Turks, but this will be little heeded in Western Europe.

In the end, the conflict with the new King of Italy, Henry of Nordheim, will prove Gregory’s undoing. Gregory insists that the Kingdom of Italy is held as a fief from the Church…based on the so-called “Donation of Constantine“…and therefore King Henry must submit to the authority of the Pope. Henry, of course, disputes this. Henry also has his eye on some of the choice territories in central Italy which are held by the Papacy. When, in 1083, there is a revolt in Rome against Gregory’s rule, therefore, Henry refuses to come to his aid, and Gregory is forced to flee the city. He will die in exile two years later.

1074--Crown Prince Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr of Britannia marries Princess Iorwen, daughter of King Ffernfael of Pengwern.

1075--Twin children, a son and a daughter, are born to Crown Prince Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr. The boy is named Morgan ap Gwalchmai, and the girl is named Morganna merch Gwalchmai. Also in this year, a son is born to Siegfried, youngest son and heir apparent of King Otto IV of Germany. The boy is named Siegfried von Nordheim. A second son is born to King Henry III of Italy. The boy is named Boniface, after his maternal grandfather, Margrave Boniface III of Tuscany.

1076--Death of Sweyn Estridssen, King of Denmark. Sweyn has no legitimate sons, but a number of bastard sons who will succeed him, one after the other, in the succeeding years.

1077--A third son is born to King Henry III and Queen Matilda of Italy. The boy is named Kuno.

1078-1093--Reign of High King Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr. Gwalchmai will attempt a major reform of the British Church, which will end in civil war and his own overthrow.

1078--A son is born to Philip, Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris (actually the third child born to the couple, the first two being a daughter and a still-born son). The boy is named Charles, and will be the first of two surviving sons the couple will eventually produce. Death of High King Cadwaladyr II ap Gruffydd. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as High King Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr.

1079--Agnes of Aquitaine, wife of King Alfonso VI of Castile, dies childless. Alfonso will not remarry for some time (in OTL, he married Constance of Burgundy in 1081, but said lady does not exist in the ATL).

1080--In this year, the ongoing process of negotiation between the British High Kings and the Papacy, which has been continuing since the reign of High King Hywel II ap Arthur over a century ago, is brought to a conclusion when a compromise agreement is signed between High King Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr and Pope Gregory VII, in which High King Gwalchmai agrees to convert to Roman Catholicism. In addition, it is agreed that the major theological differences…primarily the method by which the date of Easter is calculated…between the British Church and the Roman Church will be resolved in favor of Rome. Some minor issues, such as the tonsure worn by British monks, are allowed to remain in conflict with Roman practice. And it is agreed that the British Church need not adopt a diocesan system of organization, based on bishops and archbishops, as is the practice in most of the Roman Catholic world. Instead, the British Church will remain monastic in nature, with the abbots of the monasteries holding the reigns of authority. Also in this year, King Henri of France dies, and is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Philip.

1080-1117--Reign of King Philip of France. Philip will prove a far less able king than his predecessors, and will fail to add any new territories to the royal domains during his reign. He will spend most of his reign in conflict with Popes Gregory VII, Urban II, and Paschal II over the issue of lay investiture, and indeed, will be excommunicated at least twice during his reign. As a result, he will face a major rebellion by the powerful Duke of Aquitaine. Philip’s poor handling of this will cause the loss of much territory and significantly weaken the king’s power in years to come. But thanks to the reforms and aggressive policies pursued by his predecessors, Philip’s control on his own royal lands remains secure, and Philip’s incompetence does not change this substantially.

1081-- High King Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr calls a Synod, to be held at Caer Gloui. All of the sub-kings and Llywodraethwr (Governors), as well as the abbots and bishops of the church itself, are in attendance. At this Synod, High Gwalchmai ap Cadwaladyr announces the content of the agreement signed between himself and Pope Gregory VII the previous year. There is much consternation and outrage among the assembled dignitaries, but High King Gwalchmai makes it clear that the agreement must be accepted and that the High King intends to enforce it. In the end, the sub-kings, Llywodraethwr, bishops and abbots agree to abide by the terms of the agreement, but the seeds of discord have been sown which will have major consequences. Alexius I Comnenus ascends to the throne of the Byzantine Empire.

1081-1118--Reign of Emperor Alexius I Comnenus of the Byzantine Empire. His reign will be markedly different from that of OTL. When Alexis became emperor in OTL he was forced for the next 10 years to withdraw troops from Northern Anatolia and other regions to fight Norman invaders under Robert Guiscard. In the ATL, neither Robert Guiscard nor the Norman kingdom of Sicily and southern Italy exist when Alexis comes to the throne. The battles fought against the Normans which resulted in the destruction of the Western Tagmata, the Varangian Guard, and many of the remainder of his Thematic troops are not fought, which means that the Byzantines are much more militarily able to resist the Turks in Anatolia. As a result, the Turks will be completely driven from Anatolia by the end of his reign, and Byzantium will be well on the way to recovery from the disaster of Manzikert.

The fact that the Norman invasions do not happen also has a major secondary effect…Emperor Alexius will not need the assistance of the Venetian fleet against the Normans, and thus will not find it necessary to grant the Golden Bull to Venice. probably the most important document for the future economical and political expansion of Venice in the eastern Mediterranean. The economic, political, and military power of Venice will be greatly lessened in the coming years as a result.

The fact that most of the native Byzantine troops are not destroyed fighting the Normans also has another major, secondary effect, in that Alexius never sends the embassy to the Pope, requesting mercenaries to assist with the recovery of Anatolia, which, in OTL, resulted in the First Crusade. He will still utilize mercenaries, but on a much smaller scale, and recruited via regular sources.

Alexius will also deal with a major invasion by Pecheneg tribesmen from the steppes of Russia, making an alliance with another steppe tribe, the Cumans, and virtually annihilating the Pechenegs as a people in the early 1090s. The Cumans will later turn against him and also raid his empire, but will be defeated as well by 1094.

Alexius will also reform the currency of the Byzantine empire, placing the economy on a sound footing, and introduce a system of compulsory military service which, although not popular with the peasantry, will ensure that the empire has the military resources to defend itself, and even expand, in the years ahead.

1082--Death of King Magnus Olafsson of Norway. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Haakon Magnusson.

1083--Death of Otto IV, King of Germany and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He is succeeded by his youngest son, who reigns as King Siegfried I of Germany. Also in this year, Pope Gregory VII is forced to flee Rome by a popular revolt against his rule. His supposed protector, King Henry of Italy, refuses to intervene. Once Gregory is gone from the city, Henry moves in and restores order, and then demands that the College of Cardinals elect a new Pope. Fearing what might happen if they fail to comply, they do, selecting Henry’s candidate, Guibert, Archbishop of Ravenna, who is a strong opponent of the Gregorian Reforms, especially the demand for celibacy among parish priests. Guibert also does not share Pope Gregory’s views on the sovereignty of the Papacy over earthly rulers, and in exchange for Henry’s protection, is willing to make territorial concessions, ceding to Henry most of the Papal territory outside of Latium. Guibert is invested as Pope on May 12, 1083, reigning as Pope Clement II. With Henry’s support, he will maintain his hold on the Papacy until his death in January, 1100.

1083 onward--With the withdrawal of support by King Henry III of Italy and the ousting of Pope Gregory VII from Rome, the Gregorian Reform party of the Catholic Church is thrown into disarray. Gregory goes first to Salerno, then to the court of Duke William VIII of Aquitaine…who has been using Gregory’s pressure on King Philip of France as an excuse to pursue the aggrandizement of his own power. Under William’s protection, Gregory sets up a rival Papal throne in the city of Riom. With him come many loyal cardinals and other churchmen.

1083-1102--Reign of King Siegfried I of Germany. Siegfried will, like his father, prove to be a wise and pragmatic statesman, and Germany will prosper during his reign.

1084-1095--War between Denmark and Norway. King Haakon Magnusson of Norway claims the throne of Denmark in right of his wife, Ingerid, who is the daughter of former Danish king, Sweyn Estridssen. This sparks a war with the current Danish King, Knut Sweynssen, which lasts until 1095, when Knut’s forces are defeated in a major naval battle off Jutland. Both Knut and Haakon are killed in the battle, along with the rest of Knut‘s brothers. Haakon is succeeded by his son, Eirik Haakonsson, who is soon after proclaimed as King of Norway and Denmark.

1084--Pope Gregory VII, who was in ill health prior to his expulsion from Rome, does not adapt well to the colder northern climate of Riom, and dies in January 1084. With the support of William VIII of Aquitaine, a conclave of the Cardinals of the Gregorian Reform party elects Otho of Lagery, a Frenchman who had been made Cardinal Bishop of Ostia by Pope Gregory VII and who had followed said Pope into exile, as Pope. He takes the name of Urban II, and will continue to pursue the Gregorian reforms, making him a bitter enemy of King Philip of France (whom he will excommunicate twice during his long reign). However, as Pope Clement II was canonically elected, and it is widely held that Urban II was not, Urban II is considered an Anti-Pope by most Christian states. Therefore, he holds far less influence than he did in OTL, and is heavily reliant on the good will of his host and benefactor, the Duke of Aquitaine. One side effect of this is that, although like his predecessor, Gregory VII, Urban will call for a Crusade to free the Holy Lands from Muslim domination, his call will be widely ignored. Some few will respond to the call, but it will be on a piecemeal basis, and those who go east will serve as mercenaries in the armies of Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, not as a separate Crusader Army.

1085--Death of King Mael Snechtai mac Lulaich of Alba. Mael Snechtai having no sons of his own, he is succeeded by his first cousin, Oengus mac inghine Lulaich (“Oengus son of the daughter of Lulach”). Oengus, who will go down in history as “Oengus the Old,” will rule, mostly successfully, until 1132.

1086--Death of Duke William VIII of Aquitaine. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as Duke William IX. William IX will become one of the great rivals of King Philip of France in the years ahead, using the latter’s struggle with the papacy as a springboard for a massive assault on the power of the French monarchy. Death of High King Toirdhealbhach mac Murchad ua Briain of Ireland. He is succeeded by his son, who reigns as King Donnchad mac Toirdhealbhach ua Briain.

1086-1110--Reign of High King Donnchad mac Toirdhealbhach ua Briain of Ireland. Donnchad is not a man of the mettle of his illustrious forebears, and his reign will be troubled by rebellion as the sub-kings of Ireland sense an opportunity to retake some of their former independence from the High King. Donnchad will suppress these rebellions, but the destruction they cause will weaken Ireland’s economy, and Donnchad will be forced to grant concessions to the sub-kings which will weaken the power of the High King.

1088--High King Donnchad mac Toirdhealbhach ua Briain of Ireland marries Princess Lleucu merch Lludd, daughter of King Lludd VI of Gododdin. Anna, wife of Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh of Kiev, dies in childbirth, having produced 5 daughters but no sons. Duke William IX of Aquitaine marries Ermengarde of Anjou. The marriage will not produce any children, and will end in divorce in 1091.

1089--A son is born to High King Donnchad mac Toirdhealbhach ua Briain of Ireland. The young prince is named Brian mac Donnchad ua Briain. King Alfonso VI of Castile marries Zaida, daughter of the Muslim ruler of Seville. Zaida converts to Christianity and takes the name of Isabela (this is happening a few years earlier than in OTL). King Oengus mac inghine Lulaich of Alba marries Ceridwen, youngest daughter of High King Cadwaladyr ap Gruffydd of Britannia. Death of King Henry of Italy. He is succeeded by his eldest son, who reigns as King Otto IV of Italy.

1090-1094--Civil War in Britannia. In 1090, a rebellion against High King Gwalchmai is begun by his cousin, Cynfelyn ap Arthur (Cynfelyn is a descendant of Cadfael ap Rhys, a younger brother of High King Gruffydd ap Rhys). Cynfelyn is the powerful Llywodraethwr (Governor) of Caer Lundein, and was one of those who strongly opposed the new concordat between the High King and the Papacy. As a result, he has secretly been plotting with several of the Sub-Kings, other dis-satisfied Llywodraethwr, and various powerful abbots and bishops against the High King for some time. The result is a three-year civil war which finally ends in defeat for the forces loyal to High King Gwalchmai at the Battle of Caerleon in 1093, on the river Afon Wysg (the OTL River Usk). Gwalchmai is killed in the battle, and shortly thereafter, his son, the 18-year old Crown Prince Morgan ap Gwalchmai, goes into exile in Alba, at the court of his Roman Catholic brother-in-law, King Oengus mac inghine Lulaich. Morgan’s sister, Morganna merch Gwalchmai, is not so fortunate. She is among those besieged in Caer Camulod after the Battle of Caerleon, and is captured by Cynfelyn when the city falls in early 1094, effectively ending the war. In an effort to bolster the legitimacy of his own seizure of the throne, Cynfelyn will force her into a loveless marriage, and his own son will be conceived after repeated rapes of the unwilling Morganna within the next five years.

1090--A son is born to King Alfonso VI of Castile and Queen Isabela. The boy is named Sancho (this person is not the same as the OTL son of Alfonso VI named Sancho, and is being born about five years earlier).

1091--Crown Prince Otto of Italy marries Princess Malika, daughter of King Ladislaus I of Hungary. The union will not prove to be fruitful, and no heirs will be born to Otto.

1093-1115--Reign of High King Cynfelyn ap Arthur. Cynfelyn will leave a mixed legacy. On the one hand, he is very popular among adherents of the British Church who strongly opposed the reconciliation with Roman Catholicism which had been agreed upon by High King Gwalchmai. He restores the British liturgy and practice of calculating Easter, while maintaining a policy of toleration for those who prefer the Roman way. But he conducts a bloody purge of those sub-kings, Llywodraethwr, and members of the House of Emrys who supported High King Gwalchmai during the civil war. Those who are not caught and killed flee into exile, where they plot the return of what they consider to be the rightful royal house. As a result, his reign will be troubled with frequent rebellions, which he will brutally put down as they occur.

1094--High King Cynfelyn ap Arthur marries Princess Morganna merch Gwalchmai. As mentioned elsewhere, this is a forced union, and it will prove to be both violent and unhappy for the unfortunate new Brenhines (Queen). Morganna will defy her husband and refuse to give herself to him willingly, and Cynfelyn will beat her frequently and rape her repeatedly throughout their marriage, including, of course, on their wedding night. To fortify herself against this physical and mental torture, Morganna will turn increasingly to religion, depending on her Roman Catholic priest (the one concession to his wife’s happiness Cynfelyn makes) for comfort and solace. Her piety and brave defiance of the “heretic” Cynfelyn will eventually lead to her posthumous canonization in 1151.

1094--Duke William IX of Aquitaine marries Philippa of Toulouse.

1095--A son is born to King Oengus mac inghine Lulaich and Queen Ceridwen of Alba. The boy is named Fergus mac Oengus, and will, on the death of his father, rule Alba. The former Crown Prince Morgan ap Gwalchmai, in exile at the court of King Oengus mac inghine Lulaich of Alba, falls in love with one of the ladies-in-waiting to his aunt, Queen Ceridwen of Alba. The lady, named Deirdre, is not of royal blood, although she is from a noble family of Pictish origins. Despite the objections of his mother and sister, Morgan marries Deirdre.

1096--Crown Prince Siegfried of Germany marries Sigrid, sister of King Eirik Haakonsson of Norway and Denmark. A son is born to Duke William IX of Aquitaine and Philippa of Toulouse. In the rather un-original family tradition, he names the boy William.

1097--Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh marries a Byzantine noblewoman whose name has been lost to history. By her he will have two sons and two daughters. Also in this year, King Coloman of Hungary marries Eudoxia, eldest daughter of Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh of Kiev and Anna of Smolensk (in OTL, he married Felicia, daughter of King Roger II of Sicily. As neither Roger nor the Kingdom of Sicily exist in the ATL, neither does Felicia…). Also in this year, a son is born to former Crown Prince Morgan ap Gwalchmai, in exile in Alba, and his new wife, Deirdre. The young prince is named Arthur ap Morgan.

1098--Vikings defeat an attempt by the forces of the King of Alba to eject them from the Western Isles. A son is born to Grand Prince Vladimir II Monomakh. The boy is named Yuri Vladimirovich.

1098-1101--War between Duke William IX of Aquitaine and Count Raymond IV of Toulouse. Duke William of Aquitaine claims Toulouse in right of his wife, Philippa. A three year war results. William proves the superior leader, and in the end, Raymond is killed in battle outside the city of Toulouse. William joins the County of Toulouse to his Duchy of Aquitaine. As the Dukes of Aquitaine had already claimed the Duchy of Gascony in 1058, during the reign of William VIII, Duke William IX now effectively rules France south of the Loire River.

1099--To seal a treaty of alliance between the Kingdom of Italy and the Byzantine Empire (which holds most of southern Italy), Boniface, second son of King Henry III of Italy, marries Anna Comnenus, daughter of Byzantine Emperor Alexius I Comnenus. A second son is born to Vladimir II Monomakh, Grand Prince of Kiev. The boy is named Vsevelod Vladimirovich. A son is born to Crown Prince Siegfried of Germany and his wife, Sigrid Haakonsdottir. The boy is named Otto. Also in this year, Anti-Pope Urban II dies. In a council held at Riom, Cardinals in favor of the Gregorian Reforms meet and elect as his successor Ranierius, former Cardinal Priest of the Basilica of San Clementi in Rome, who takes the Papal name of Paschal II. Paschal continues his predecessor’s policies in promoting the Gregorian Reforms, but, like his predecessor, is considered an Anti-Pope by most of Christendom.

Also in this year, Crown Prince Morgan ap Gwalchmai, outraged after hearing of the brutal treatment which his twin sister, Morganna, has been enduring at the hands of High King Cynfelyn ap Arthur, begs his uncle, King Oengus mac inghine Lulaich of Alba, to invade Britannia and overthrow Cynfelyn. Knowing the disparity of power between the two kingdoms, Oengus expresses his sympathy for Morganna’s plight, but declines to support the idea of an invasion.

Rebuffed by his uncle, Morgan decides to act on his own, and in February 1099 secretly re-enters Britannia with a bodyguard of loyal Scots and exile Britons, aiming to raise the standard of revolt against Cynfelyn. Morgan is intercepted near the border by the troops of King Owain IV of Strathclyde, and taken to the king’s palace at Alcluid. At a feast held in Morgan’s honour, King Owain seems sympathetic to Morgan’s cause, and offers to join Morgan and march on Caer Camulod. Secretly, however, he sends a messenger to High King Cynfelyn, advising him of the entry of Morgan into Britannia and of Morgan’s plans, and at the conclusion of the feast, has Morgan and all his retinue arrested. Morgan is confined in the dungeons of Owain’s fortress, while his men are all taken outside the city gates, have their throats cut, and their bodies thrown into the icy waters of the Clyde River. In March 1099, Morgan is sent in chains to Cynfelyn, who has him blinded, his tongue cut out, and his ears cut off. The maimed former Crown Prince will languish for the remainder of his short life in Cynfelyn’s dungeons, and die, of abuse and malnourishment, just before Christmas in this same year.

Brenhines Morganna, who was at the time pregnant with Cynfelyn’s son, is devastated when, in April 1099, she is brought to her brother’s cell and sees him, blind and mute, chained and shackled. She goes into premature labor, and dies during childbirth that night. Her son survives, however, and is named Einion ap Cynfelyn. The boy will be invested as King of Gwynedd later that same year.

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