Psychoanalyst - A mental health professional (usually a medical doctor) trained to practice psychoanalysis.
Counselor - A mental health professional who specializes in helping people with problems involving serious mental disorder.
Psychiatric social worker - A mental health professional trained to apply social science principles to help patients in clinics and hospitals.
Basic (or "pure") research - Scientific study undertaken without concern for immediate practical application.
Applied research - Scientific study undertaken to solve immediate practical problems.
Observation - Gathering data directly by recognizing and recording facts or events.
Scientific method - Testing the truth of a proposition by careful measurement and controlled observation.
Hypothesis - The predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated guess about the relationship between variables.
Operational definition - Defining a scientific concept by stating the specific actions or procedures used to measure it.
Theory - A system of ideas designed to interrelate concepts and facts in a way that summarizes existing data and predicts future observations.
Naturalistic observation - Observing behavior as it unfolds in natural settings
Correlational method - Making measurements to discover relationships between events.
Experimental method - Investigating behavior through controlled experimentation.
Clinical method - Studying psychological problems and therapies in clinical settings.
Survey method - The use of public polling techniques to answer psychological questions.
Representative method - A small, randomly selected part of a larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of the whole population.
Population - An entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category.
Biased sample - A subpart of a larger population that does not accurately reflect characteristics of the whole population.
Courtesy bias - The tendency to give "polite" answers; especially, the tendency to alter answers so as not to hurt an interviewer's feelings.
Critical thinking - An ability to evaluate, compare, analyze, critique, and synthesize information.
Pseudo-psychology - Any false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior.
Palmistry - False system that claims to reveal personality traits and to predict the future by "reading" lines on the palms of the hands.
Phrenology - False and antiquated system based on the belief that personality traits are revealed by the shape of the skull.
Graphology - False system based on the belief that handwriting can reveal personality traits.
Astrology - False system based on the belief that human behavior is influenced by the position of the stars and planets.
Uncritical acceptance - The tendency to believe generally positive or flattering descriptions of oneself.
Fallacy of positive instances - The tendency to remember or notice information that fits one's expectations, while forgetting discrepancies.
Barnum effect - The tendency to consider a personal description accurate if it is stated in very general terms.
Chapter Two
Neurons - Individual nerve cells.
Biopsychology - The study of how biological processes, especially activity in the brain and nervous system, relate to behavior.
Dendrites - Neuron fibers that receive incoming messages.
Soma - The main body of a neuron or other cell.
Axon - Fiber that carries information away from the cell body of a neuron.
Ion - An electrically charged molecule.
Resting potential - The electrical charge of a neuron at rest.
Threshold - The point at which a nerve impulse is triggered.
Action potential - The nerve impulse.
Ion channels - Channels through the axon membrane.
All-or-nothing - An event that happens completely, or not at all.
Synapse - The microscopic space between two neurons, over which messages pass.
Neurotransmitter - Any chemical released by a neuron that alters activity in other neurons.
Receptor sites - Areas on the surface of neurons and other cells that are sensitive to neurotransmitters or hormones.
Acetylcholine - The neurotransmitter released by neurons to activate muscles.
Curare - A drug that competes with acetylcholine, causing paralysis.
Neuropeptides - Brain chemicals that regulate the activity of neurons.
Enkephalins - Opiate-like brain chemicals that regulate reactions to pain and stress.
Endorphins - Chemicals that are similar in structure and painkilling effect to opiate drugs such as morphine.
Nerve - A bundle of neuron fibers.
Myelin - A fatty layer coating some axons.
Neurilemma - A layer of cells that encases many axons.
Central nervous system - The brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system - All parts of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.
Somatic system - The system of nerves linking the spinal cord with the body and sense organs.
Autonomic system - The system of nerves carrying information to and from the internal orans and glands.
Sympathetic system - A branch of the ANS that arouses the body.
Parasympathetic system - A branch of the ANS that quiets the body.
White matter - Areas that appear white due to the presence of myelin.
Spinal nerves - Major nerves that carry sensory and motor messages in and out of the spinal cord.
Cranial nerves - Major nerves that leave the brain without passing through the spinal cord.
Reflex arc - The simplest behavior, in which a stimulus provokes an autonomic response.
Sensory neuron - A nerve cell that carries information from the senses toward the CNS.
Connector neuron - A nerve cell that serves as a link between two others.
Motor neuron - A nerve cell that carries motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.
Effector cells - Cells in muscles and glands that are capable of producing some type of response.
Clinical study - An intensive investigation of the behavior of a single person, especially one suffering from some injury, disease, or disorder.
Ablation - Surgical removal of tissue.
Electrode - Any device (such as a waire, needle, or metal plate) used to electically stimulate nerve tissue or to record its activity.
Deep lesioning - Removal of tissue within the brain by use of an electrode.
Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) - Direct electrical stimulation and activation of brain tissue.
Micro-electrode - An electrode small enough to record the activity of a single neuron.
Electroencephalograph (EEG) - A device that detects, amplifies, and records electrical activity in the brain.
CT scan - Computed tomography scan; a computer-enhanced X-ray image of the brain or body.
MRI scan - Magnetic resonance imaging; a computer-enhanced three-dimensional representation of the brain or body, based on the body's response to a magnetic field.
PET scan - Position emission tomography; a computer-generated image of brain activity, based on glucose consumption in the brain.
Cerebrum - The large hemispheres that cover the upper part of the brain.
Cerebral cortex - The outer layer of the cerebrum.
Gray matter - Areas in the nervous system made up mostly of nerve cell bodies.
Corticalization - An increase in the relative size of the cerebral cortex.
Cerebral hemispheres - The right and left halves of the cerebrum.
Corpus callosum - The bundle of fibers connecting the cerebral hemispheres.
Spatial neglect - Ignorming one side of vision or of the body after damage to a brain hemisphere.
"Split-brain" operation - Cutting the corpus callosum.
Lobes of cerebral cortex - Areas on the cortex bordered by major fissures or defined by their functions.
Occipital lobes - Portion of the cerebral cortex where vision registers in the brain.
Tumor - A mass of abnormal cells.
Parietal lobes - Area of the brain where bodily sensations register.
Somatosensory area - A receiving area for bodily sensations.
Temporal lobes - Areas that include the sites where hearing registers in the brain.
Frontal lobes - A brain area associated with movement, the sense of smell, and higher mental functions.
Motor cortex - A brain area associated with control of movement.
Association cortex - All areas of the cerebral cortex that are not primarily sensory or motor in function.
Aphasia - A speech disturbance resulting from brain damage.
Broca's area - A language area related to grammar and pronunciation.
Wernicke's area - An area related to language comprehension.
Agnosia - An inability to grasp the meaning of stimuli, such as words, objects, or pictures.
Subcortex - All brain structures below the cerebral cortex.
Brainstem - The lowest portions of the brain, including the cerebellum, medulla, and reticular formation.
Medulla - The structure that connects the brain with the spinal cord and controls vital life functions.
Cerebellum - A brain structure that controls posture and coordination.
Reticular formation - A network within the medulla and brainstem; associated with attention, alertness, and some reflexes.
Reticular activating system (RAS) - A part of the reticular formation that activates the cerebral cortex.
Thalamus - A structure that relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus - A small area that regulates emotional behaviors and motives.
Limbic system - A system in the forebrain that is closely linked with emotional response.
Amygdala - A part of the limbic system associated with fear responses.
Hippocampus - A part of the limbic system associated with storing memories.
Endocrine system - Glands whose secretions pass directly into the bloodstream or lymph system.
Hormone - A glandular secretion that affects bodily functions or behavior.
Growth hormone - A hormone, secreted by the pituitary gland, that promotes bodily growth.
Giantism - Excessive bodily growth caused by too much growth hormone.
Acromegaly - Enlargement of the arms, hands, feet, and face caused by excess growth hormone production late in the human growth period.
Pituitary gland - The "master gland" whose hormones influence other endocrine glands.
Pineal gland - Gland in the brain that helps regulate body rhythms and sleep cycles.
Melatonin - Hormone released by the pineal gland in response to daily cycles of light and dark.
Hypopituitary dwarfism - Shortness and smallness caused by too little growth hormone.
Thyroid gland - Endocrine gland that helps regulate the rate of metabolism.
Metabolism - The rate at which energy is produced and used by the body.
Hyperthyroidism - Faster metabolism and excitability caused by an overactive thyroid gland.
Hypothyroidism - Slower metabolism and sluggishness caused by an underactive thyroid gland.
Adrenaline - An adrenal hormone that tends to arouse the body; adrenaline is associated with fear.
Noradrenaline - An adrenal hormone that tends to arouse the body; noradrenaline is associated with anger.
Adrenal glands - Endocrine glands that arouse the body, regulate salt balance, adjust the body to stress, and affect sexual functioning.
Adrenal medulla - The inner core of the adrenal glands; a source of adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Adrenal cortex - The outer layer of the adrenal glands; produced hormones that affect salt intake, reactions to stress, and sexual development.
Virilism - The development of male sexual characteristics in a female.
Premature puberty - The development of sexual maturity in childhood.
Handedness - A preference for the right or left hand in most activities.
Dominant cerebral hemisphere - A term usually applied to the side of a person's brain that produces language.
Lateralization - Differences between the two sides of the body; especially, differences in the abilities of the brain hemispheres.
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