PART IV - PROJECT PLANNING APPLICATIONS

4.1 Control System: 

Every detail of project planning will not be materializing as expected. Coping and controlling project changes present a formidable challenge for most project managers. Changes come from many sources, such as the project customer, owner, project manager, team members and occurrence of risk events. Most changes easily fall into three categories: 

1.  Scope changes in the form of design or additions represent big changes, for example customer requests for a new feature or a redesign that will improve the product.

2. Implementation of contingency plans, when risk event s occurs, represent changes in the base line costs and schedules.

3.  Improvement changes suggested by project team members represent another category.

Because change is inevitable, a well-defined change review and controlling process should be setup early in the project planning cycle. Basically change control systems involve reporting, controlling and recording changes to the project base line. In practice most change control systems are designed to accomplish the following: 

1.  Identify proposed changes

2.  List expected effect of proposed changes on schedule and budget.

3.  Review, evaluate and approve or disapprove changes formally.

4.  Negotiate and resolve conflicts of change, conditions and cost.

5. Communicate changes to the parted affected.

6.  Assign responsibility for implementing change

7.  Track all changes that are to be implemented

Change request should be reviewed and approved or disapproved with in a short time limit. If the project is large, a review team may be required. Every approved change must be identified and reflected in the project WBS and baseline. If the change control system is not integrated with WBS and baseline, project plans and control systems will soon self-destruct. The benefits of change control systems are the following:

1.  The formal process discourages inconsequential changes.

2. Cost of changes are maintained in a log

3.  Integrity of WBS and performance measures is maintained

4.  Allocation and use of budget and management reserve funds are tracked.

5.  Responsibility for implementation is clarified

6.  Effect of changes is visible to all parties involved

7. Implementation of change is monitored

8. Scope changes will be quickly reflected in base line and performance measures.

4.2 Information Systems for Project Planning 

A well-informed project manager has better control over the project in every phase of its life cycle. Few years ago project managers used quite a bulk of stationary to plan projects.  When sometimes things go out of control, they need to revise the project plan and inform all team members. This consumed a lot of time. Thanks to modern day technology that has led to use of computers and networking techniques. Due of this the communication between the team members not only improved but designs and plans are modified in no time, and lot of resources are conserved.

 Every organization uses a different type of techniques for planning their projects. Most common and easy to use are (On-Shelf) computer software, which not only provide the time line calculations but also keep track of resources and cost calculations. As they are less expensive they have some limitations. They are bound in providing any solution for real problem. As every project is unique, internal and external factors are quite different and cannot be computed. Therefore project managers have to rely mostly on their own experiences to solve such problems. Some of the most commonly used software are MS Project, Primavera, etc.  

Apart from using On-Shelf computer software, few modern project managers are making quite a use of advance information systems to plan projects. Such as expert systems, which hold an enormous amount of information. These systems warn project managers about shortcomings in the projects. It also has a large database of successful projects and hold solutions of problems that project managers had faced during their planning of projects. Expert systems along with artificial intelligence systems manage risks better, considering internal and external environmental factors. However, such expert systems are very rare and used by few organizations in the world. The reason is that these systems are expensive, hard to develop and need training of project managers, to customize them accordingly, as per the needs of the organization. No matter how intelligent computer software would be, still it could miss events form reality, which could either delay a project or completely shutting it down. Therefore rather than blindly depending on computers, project managers need to rely on their own experiences as well, keeping note of rapidly changing environment, which could affect the progress of the project. 

The third and the easier way for project managers, is to take advantage from experiences of other firms or organizations operating in similar environmental conditions. Conducting surveys and obtaining information, as how other organizations in the same line of business plan and implement their projects? How do they manage risks and find solutions for their problems facing them during projects. Such firms develop data banks for their researches and for their past project experiences. Whenever any related problem is faced, they have a ready-made solution from the data bank, which they have to choose and apply.  However, these ready-made solutions need to be some what tailored to suit the present situation, and later they are recorded systematically in the data bank. 

4.3 Project Implementation and Closure

For a complete successful project, no amount of excellent project planning would be effective unless it is implemented efficiently. This dissertation has, to this point discussed only technical aspects of project management. The socio-cultural aspect as well plays a big role in its success. 

4.3.a. Project Implementation

Here I would briefly inspect those areas, whose knowledge would be of great importance for practicing project managers.  The implementation of project needs to address variety of factors such as Organizational culture, Leadership, Managing of project teams and progress measurements.

Organizational Culture: The interaction between project management structure and organizational culture is complicated one. In certain organizations, culture encourages the implementation of projects. In this environment the project management structure plays a less decisive role in the success of the project. Conversely, for other organizations in which culture stresses internal competition and differentiation, just the opposite may be true. The prevailing norms, customs, and attitudes inhibit effective project management, and the project management structure plays a more decisive role in successful implementation of projects. At a minimum, under adverse cultural conditions, the project manager needs to have significant authority over the project team; under extreme conditions firm should use dedicated project teams to complete critical projects.

Managing Teams: In the aspect of managing teams the project manager has to recruit personals form different departments and manage their temporary involvement. They have to bring strangers together and quickly establish a set of procedures that unite their efforts and contributions. They have to be skilled at managing meeting so that they do not become a burden but a vehicle to progress.  Project managers need to forge team identity and a shared vision, which command the attention and allegiance of participants. They need to give group incentives to encourage teamwork while recognizing when it is appropriate to single out individuals for special recognition.

 Leadership: To be a successful, project managers must build a cooperative network among a diverse set of allies. They begin by identifying who the key stakeholders are, followed by the diagnosis of nature of relationships, and the basis for exercising influence. They uses this influence and a highly interactive style to monitor project performance and initiate appropriate changes in project plans and directions. They do so in manner that generate trust, which is ultimately based on others perception of their character and competence.

 Project Evaluation: The best information systems do not result in good control. Control requires the project manager to use information to steer the project through waters. Control and Gantt chats are useful vehicles for monitoring time performance. The cost/schedule system allows the manager to have a positive influence on cost and schedule in a timely manner. The ability to influence cost decreases with time; therefore timely reports identifying adverse cost trends can greatly assist the project manger in getting back on budget and schedule.

 4.3.b. Project Closure:  

Every project comes to an end eventually. On projects the end may not be as clear as would be hoped. Although the scope statement may define a clear ending for a project, the actual ending may or may not correspond. Fortunately, a majority of projects are blessed with well-defined ending. Conditions of project closure could any on of these: 

Normal: Most of the project closure is simply a completed project. There might be some modifications in scope, cost and time during the project but are completed near the plan. Traditionally there is a colossal ending, project is transferred to the customer and the project is closed down. 

Premature: For a few project some parts of the project may not be completed and therefore they are eliminated. All the project stakeholders should support early project closure. This decision is to be taken by the project priority team and the top management. 

Perpetual: Some projects never seem to end. This is the project appears to develop a life of its own. Although these projects are plagued with delays, they are viewed as desirable when they finally are complete.  This could be due to the change of scope of the project many times.  At some point the project manager needs to call the project design locked to bring closure.  

Failed Projects: In rare circumstances project simply fail for a variety of reasons. For example making of new drug may be abandoned because side effect of the drug are deemed unacceptable. 

Changed Priorities:  The project continuously review project selection priorities to reflect the changes in the organization. Normally these changes are small over the period of time, but periodically major shifts in the organization require dramatic shifts in priorities. Project may start with a high priority but may see its rank erode or crash during its project life cycle as conditions change. It could be at some places the original importance of the project was misjudged; in some needs have changed. If the project role does not contribute to the organization strategy then the priority team should recommend the termination of the project. In many termination situations, these projects are integrated into related projects or routine daily operations. 

4.4 Insight on Project Management Practices: 

 Example: Hosting of Olympic Games 2000 in Sydney                Theme: To highlight the definition of scope of project and WBS

Objective:    To stage the year Olympic games at specified location in Sydney beginning September 15^th at a cost of 1.4 billion.

 Client:        No clearly defined client. Activities are underwritten by the government of New South Wales (NSW) Many stake holders and customers e.g. citizens of New South Wales, NWS government, the Australian people, the International Olympic Organization, the International Community as a whole, and Australian and international business communities.

 Scope:    Organizing all games and ceremonies. Putting in place all technologies and recourses required to stage games. Handling relations and fund rising.

 Criteria for success:    Trouble free performance of games. Level of public enthusiasm and enjoyment. Economic activity generated within NSW and Australia. Continued interest in the future Olympic games.

 Project Team:    SOCOG was appointed as the Project Manager’s legislation. Other organizations directly contributing to the success of the games, such as the International Olympic Committee, Australian Olympic Committee, Sydney City Council, and Olympic Coordination Authority have been there partly to host city contracts. Olympic Coordination Authority is responsible for all infrastructure projects, most of which are already under way or are being reprogrammed to accommodate the games. Completion of these projects on time is vital to the success of the Olympic games. 

Work Breakdown structure:    The WBS for the project includes the following major areas: events; venues and facilities, including accommodation; transport; media facilities and coordination; telecommunications; security arrangements; medical care; human resources, including volunteers; cultural Olympiad; pre games training; information technology projects; opening and closing ceremonies; public relations; financing; testing and trial events; and sponsorship management and control of ambush marketing. Each of terms could be treated as projects in its own right. Precision coordination will be necessary that these, and therefore the entire games project, are delivered on time.

 Priorities:    Time obviously, is the most critical dimensions of the Sydney 2000 Olympic games project. Any shortcomings in time dimension will have to be offset by sacrificing either cost or quality. However, performance on all of the three dimensions is vital to success of the games. Worldwide opinion will be shaped by perceived quality of the facilities, the efficiency of event management, and the treatment of foreign athletes and spectators. The games budget in nominal terms is $1.4 billion and any major cost overruns will alternate the public and overshadow the spectacle. Still, if the compromise has to be made, cost aspect will be the first dimension sacrificed.

In practice small projects networks (25 to 100 activities) are frequently developed using yellow Post-it stickers.  The meeting requirements and the project team are described herein.

1.  Project team members and a facilitator.

2.  One yellow sticker (3 x 4 inches or larger) for each activity with description of the activity printed on the sticker.

3.  Erasable white board with a marker pen.

 All of the yellow stickers are placed in easy view of all team members. The team begins by identifying those activity stickers that have no predecessors; each of these activity stickers is then attached to the white board. A start node is drawn, and dependency arrow is connected to each activity.  

Given the initial network start activities; each activity is examined for immediate successor activity. These activities are attached to the white board and dependency arrows drawn. This process is continued until all of the yellow stickers are attached to the whiteboard with dependency arrows. (Note: The process can be reversed, beginning with those activities that have no successor activities and connecting then to a project end node. The predecessor activities are selected for each activity and attached to the whiteboard with dependency arrows marked). 

When the process is complete, the dependencies are recorded in the project software, which develops a computer design network along with the critical path(s) and early, late, and slack times. This methodology sensitizes the team members early to the interdependencies among activities of the project.