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Digitization of the Special Collection ����������� One of the hottest topics over the past decade in academic library special collections has been digitization. Digitization is the process of �converting a physical object into digital image.�1 In most cases that means taking old books, newspapers, and other textual material and scanning it so it can be displayed on a web page. The process has also been used for images like paintings, drawings, and items like postcards. Some libraries have even started to digitize things like audio recordings and film. The entire procedure of digitizing objects requires lots of decisions to be made and can be quite lengthy. It�s important for academic librarians to at least have some knowledge of what goes into it, and those working or planning to work in special collections should stay current because it�s becoming a larger part of the job. ����������� Since digitization has become a common practice in academic libraries, museums, and even some public libraries, a lot of literature has been produced pertaining to the subject. There are many good books out there. One like Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook by Stuart Lee is a great guide for the librarian who is new to the topic or wants a full introduction. It goes through reasons digitization is important and what purpose it serves. It suggests things a librarian should do in order to determine what to digitize. It has what things should be done before, during and after digitization. It also includes an introduction to the technical considerations like what hardware and software is needed and what image sizes are appropriate. It never gets too technical as to lose people who don�t know anything about the subject. Other books have been created that are oriented toward the technical librarian or IT staff who will be doing the actual capturing and manipulation. Moving Theory into Practice: Digital Imaging for Libraries and Archives edited by Anne Kenney and Oya Rieger is a collection articles by different authors that each focus on one topic in Digitization. Most of the articles are very specific and detailed for the person who wants to know advanced techniques in digitizing text and pictures. ����������� Other
literature has been produced to not be as encompassing but smaller and focused
on one topic to be used as a reference tool for librarians doing digitization. The
Commission on Preservation and Access, which in 1997 merged with the Council on
Library and Information Resources, has put out reports on a regular basis that
address issues in digitization. One of their reports entitled �Preservation in
the Digital World� discusses some of the issues in the digitization of
historical artifacts. Everything from digitizing old clay tablets and papyrus
to modern books and newspapers are discussed. Their publications provide a
librarian working in special collections a brief but thorough look at a topic.
The Association of Research Libraries produces SPEC (Systems and ����������� There are many reasons libraries choose to digitize their special collections materials. One of the most common reasons is preservation. Since many items in special collections are old or rare it is important to keep them in the best condition possible so they remain useable. If one of these items is accessed and handled often it could become damaged. If they are digitized in sufficiently high enough quality it should satisfy many people who want to use them and keep the original safe.2 The original copy will still be available to scholars and researchers who need to see it for its composition or for a more detailed look. Some items that may benefit from this would be old newspapers that are starting to fall apart and rare maps or important documents of which only one exists that would be in high demand.3 In one study it was found that the only way to get any use out of a set of old, brittle, faded maps was to see them on a computer monitor after they had been digitized and enhanced.4 A result of this could be taking one of these items out of circulation and possibly put in a special storage area so that physical access is not allowed unless it is truly needed and the focus is then on conservation.5 Another benefit of digitization as a preservation method is that copies can be easily stored anywhere and in multiple places. Things like natural disasters, catastrophes, and accidents can destroy a rare item without any warning and there is no good way to protect it.6 In this unfortunate event if a rare item is lost, at least we would have a copy on file so that the information is not totally lost. ����������� While preservation is a great benefit, as academic librarians, there is a goal of helping people find the information they need. Digitization helps libraries get their special collection materials, which may be one of the only copies in existence, to a much larger number of people.7 When an electronic copy of a document is created it is then very easy to put it online for anyone in the world with internet access to view and research it. It also allows someone to easily take a file, with a copy of the document, anywhere. This could allow documents in separate places to be compared side by side or for a researcher to take a copy of the document into the field with out worrying it could be damaged. Digitization also increases access because it increases demand.8 When documents that are kept up in a room away from everyone, people may overlook what is in the collection. When they are put online people who didn�t know it existed, will now read it. That could be scholars, college students, or in some cases school children and the general public.9 This allows the library to share its collection and resources with the world. For an academic library this allows it to serve many more people and provide easier access to a larger amount of information. ����������� There are
other benefits that result because of digitization. When the special
collections department is digitizing their holdings it allows for them to
reassess how the items are organized. Since many works in special collections
are not always easy to catalog and may have been in the collection for many
years they may benefit from being re-cataloged. Putting it online lets the
librarians describe, classify, and catalog them again, possibly improving how
it was previously done or get it more in line with the rest of the collection.10
When the cost of digitization is discussed it is usually about how high it is,
but some institutions have found that when digital copies of some items, like
photographs, are put on a library�s webpage it can increase the number of hits
dramatically so as per visit cost, the library does very well.11 The
most helpful thing many libraries have done when they digitize their special
collections is to make them text searchable.12 The ability to search
the text allows a user to search for specific quotes or topics, something that
isn�t available from the original. �For printed
documents there are programs created that extract the text when they have been
scanned. This allows the library to have both an image and the actual text.
Sometimes it�s the text itself that is rare and in demand
like in the case of the mid 19th century British pulp serial, Varney
the Vampire. The ����������� �When a library is planning to start a digitization project there are many things which have to be considered in order to know what resources will be needed and to try and predict some of the possible problems. The most important thing to consider is what to select for digitization. Since it takes too much time and money to digitize all items in special collections, librarians need to look at their collection from several angles to determine how their patrons and the library�s mission would best be served. Some libraries have used a �cherry-picking� strategy to choose what items will be digitized.14 They select items from the collection they think are the most important or most valuable and digitize without using any other selection criteria. This can be tolerable for a few items because many special collection departments have a few items they are very proud of, but over all it�s a poor method. It takes no consideration of need or what�s important in the collection, but satisfies a self indulgent desire to show off what the library has. ����������� A good guideline to use in selection is the main mission of the academic library, which is to support the curriculum and the research of university.15 The needs of the students and the faculty should be the primary selection criteria for the special collections department. Most undergraduates may not use many items in special collections but grad students and professors will. While they can still use the physical copy in the library, many times it may be easier for them to sit at their own computer or print out a copy of the item, so that they can do research. Since most special collections material cannot be removed from the building or even the room, it makes doing cross-reference research somewhat difficult. If comparing two or more works, having a copy at home or in the office allows the researcher to take as much time as they need and use all the materials they already have. It has even been suggested that librarians can work with the faculty to decide which materials would be most helpful if digitized.16 ����������� Another responsibility the academic library has is to support the community in which it is located. Many times a library�s special collections department will house the writings or art of local people. The special collections department may have documents relating to historic events that occurred in the area.17 Those types of works may be in increased demand in the community because they connect people to their history and culture. Digitizing and making these types of sources available to the public can make people more aware of where they came from and how their community developed. It can also be a source for local historians, scholars, and even school children. ����������� Another criterion for selection to consider is that of scholarly need. The special collection may include many rare items but it�s not always the rarest items that are in demand.18 If another institution has already made a digitized copy or a print reproduction of a rare work available then spending the library�s time and money on digitizing it would be a waste. Many rare books are not in demand and are rare only because they were printed in small numbers. A library�s special collection department may be the only one to have a full collection of some books, texts, prints, etc. so that a copy of one of those isn�t very rare but the entire collection in one place is. It is then very helpful to scholars to have them all available in one central location with a consistent file size and type. ����������� There are limiting factors when it comes to selecting items for digitization. The biggest one that is always present in most academic libraries is the issue of cost and money available. For a library just starting a digitization project there is the initial cost of machinery like scanners, cameras, computers, and software. Most times you need professional equipment which means it will be expensive. For items like scanners, if the library is planning on scanning books that can�t be opened flat then a special scanner with a cradle to hold an open book may need to be purchased which of course is higher priced. When Colorado State University started a digitization program they needed it to scan documents (not books) and were able to use scanners they already owned that went unused most of the year.19 While this will not usually be the case in most special collection departments, it is wise to look around at the resources available already in the library and see if any costs can be cut. ����������� It is important to know that the cost involved with digitization doesn�t only apply to the actual scanning of the items. One author suggests that the total cost of the entire digitization process is actually three times the cost of just scanning in the items.20 That gives the librarian a lot of other things to look at when deciding how much money is needed. The cost of labor is a major consideration.21 Since many special collection items may be in varying states of physical quality a trained staff or faculty member usually must handle much of the digitization process. Since it does require technical know how, the person must know or be trained in those areas also. After the item has been scanned into a digital format it will require manipulation and formatting to get it in a form that can be distributed and then it will need to be cataloged, if not in the library (where it may already be cataloged), on the library�s form of distribution, usually a web page. ����������� Another money issue is that of the source of the funding. An academic library usually doesn�t have the funds to go out and digitize the entire special collection; instead they are usually given a sum of money that is to be used for it. The government, local or national, may provide some money, but according to an ARL publication it will most likely be for items that are �political cultural historical artifacts.�22 A library could receive a grant to digitize a certain area of its collection. The same ARL paper gives the example of a rise in tuberculosis cases that gets a medical research foundation to pay a library with a special collection housing 19th century documents on the subject to make it�s collection available to a wider audience through digitization.23 As with any private money though, you are usually restricted to the wishes of the donor. This restriction on funds makes it all the more important that the library evaluate the cost of digitization before it starts a project. There are several guides available to help figure out the costs of digitization. These usually only discuss the physical costs of scanning per page24, but Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook does provide several pages of equations for different types of digitization projects that attempt to figure out the entire costs.25 Even they say though, that you should figure contingency into the cost, at a percentage as high a 20%, and since each library and project is different, each should be calculated on an individual basis. ����������� When a library is deciding what material to digitize they must also consider if the material is still under copyright. This is a major issue because if the library were to publish items on its web page that violate someone else�s copyright they could be sued and have to pay for it. Many items in special collections may be old enough that they are no longer under copyright and are in the public domain. The library could also already have the right to publish some material. If the work is still under copyright the library must ask for permission, as Yale did with its Arts of the Book Collection.26 They have a large number of publications with artwork by different artists, so they wrote all the ones they could locate and asked for permission to display it on their webpage. They said it was a success but that locating all the artists and waiting for them to send back signed agreements adds to the time and money spent on the project. In many cases it may not be that easy, the copyright holder will want money for the publication of the work. It is suggested that an institution that does not have the funds for a drawn out copyright negotiation should drop those items under copyright for consideration.27 When considering items to digitize, the copyright status is something that should be looked at early in the process. It is also noted that rights for displaying written works may differ from those for playing musical pieces and those of art and film. These laws also change from time to time so the library must stay current on their responsibilities.28 ����������� Before the actual digitization process can begin the library has to determine who is going to be responsible for each step. This comes down to a decision between doing everything in the library and outsourcing parts to other groups. If everything is done by the library they have to provide all their own hardware and software and have trained staff and faculty to run it. In some cases it may be cheaper to outsource at least some of the digitization to an organization that specializes in it.29 The problem some have with this option is that the item will have to leave the library and be in someone else�s care. If the item is very valuable, rare, or in very poor condition it may not be worth the risk. The organization that specializes in some part of the digitization will keep their equipment up to date and will have a very good knowledge of the process and can do it quickly. If a library is planning on digitizing a large portion of their material they may see a benefit from putting up the initial setup cost and training so that they can train others in the library and can do projects when they want or as new items come into special collections.30 ����������� The major component in digitization and the one many librarians know the least about many times is the technical issues involved. Today many people scan images on their own scanner or manipulate and print their own photographs and may get a false sense of security because they don�t know all the additional issues in digitizing items correctly and making them in a displayable form. Since the majority of the special collection department�s holdings are books or textual sources the focus will be on flat scanning and image production. When doing digitization of other media like sound and movies there are much different issues to consider and this is still a growing field but as computer memory becomes cheaper and internet connections become faster more libraries could consider digitizing this part of their collection. ����������� Before beginning the actual scanning there are things to consider in order to be sure that sensitive and valuable materials kept in special collections are protected. One thing to remember is that with many older documents things like extended exposure to light, heat, and humidity may damage them, so proper care should always be used when handling these objects. Exposure damage is cumulative so its best if an item is scanned well the first time then it should not have to be scanned again, unless there is a vast improvement in technology in the future.31 In the imaging center at the Ewell Stewart Library of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia they have tried to make it as safe as possible for the artifacts they scan. They have a room with no windows and the walls painted a neutral gray. They use D50 light bulbs in the ceiling lights because they have been found to be neutral to the eye. They also have installed a large number of electrical outlets on dedicated circuits because they use lots of technological equipment and a broken circuit could cause damage to equipment or loss of data.32 Another thing to keep in mind is that when scanning in large items like maps or prints, they must be supported by some type of board so they don�t bend and so that they don�t become warped. Books should be opened carefully and not be forced flat if it would damage the binding.33 ����������� The first hardware consideration that needs to be determined is what type of scanner is needed. There are many types of scanners, each serving its own purpose. There are two main styles of scanners, contact and non-contact. Contact scanners require the item to be placed on it where it is captured. Non-contact scanning means the item will not have to be touched by any of the hardware and in many cases don�t require as much heat and light, though there may be a loss in quality as a result.34 Most people are familiar with flatbed scanner. They are available for home computers and at the lower end are very affordable. A flatbed scanner has a glass plate on which the item to be scanned is placed, and then the CCD (Charge-Coupled Device), the hardware that actually gets the images, passes underneath. Modern flatbed scanners are fast and can capture in color, grayscale or black and white. Higher end flatbed scanners give very good resolution. One problem with flatbed scanners is that you are limited to the size of the glass plate; anything larger will either have to be done in pieces and reassembled or done elsewhere. Another problem is that it requires the item to be flat. Books don�t scan well unless they can be opened flat, and items that may be easily damaged, cannot be scanned with a flatbed scanner. ����������� A sheet feeding scanner is good for quick processing of documents in good shape. Since many times special collections will house the documents given to them by a certain person, and these may be relatively new they would be good candidates for a sheet feeding scanner.� Sheet feeders are fast, scanning around 40 pages a minute (at low resolution), and can do one-hundred documents or more in one sitting with out human intervention. The documents are loaded and taken through the machine, past the CCD, and out the other side. There are �duplex� models which allow scanning of both sides of a sheet. These are good for printed text documents because you usually don�t need as high a quality and there are no color images. The drawback is that they can usually only do standard paper size documents and they must be in good condition.35 ����������� Drum scanners are the most expensive type of scanner but they also yield the highest quality. They work by attaching the sheet to a round drum that is rotated line by line past a photomultiplier tube. They allow larger documents to be scanned (up to around 12 inches by 17 inches). They are usually much too expensive for most libraries to consider getting unless they plan to make digitization a large part of their duties.36 They also require the document to be attached to the drum so it must be in decent shape and flexible enough to be gently bent.37 ����������� Copystand scanners are used to scan in larger documents that won�t fit in other scanners or ones that are too fragile for the contact that others require. It has a digital camera that is fixed on a pole and can be moved up or down to get the item fully into view.38 The price of digital cameras has come down dramatically in just the last five years and the resolutions continue to increase. Usually the document would be placed on a flat surface but some books cannot be opened flat so sometimes a cradle will be used to hold the book at a 45� angle.39 The drawbacks include needing to have outside light sources it illuminate the source. These lights have to be placed correctly so a good image is taken but making sure there isn�t a glare. Another problem that sometimes arises is that the camera needs to be moved up and down and sometimes in different orientations for cradles for different items taking longer than other methods. ����������� The next thing that must be understood when undertaking a scanning digitization project is about how images are created and stored and their various properties. If text or pictures can be scanned in grayscale or bi-tonal (black and white) it reduces the file size and the time to scan, but some images have color and it is vital to keep it when being scanned. �Computer image displays are made of pixels (picture elements) that are tiny �dots� on the monitor that make colors with combinations of red, blue, and green. On the other hand an image file is made of numbers that correspond to the colors red, blue, and green. Color is somewhat of an abstract concept that is out of the scope of this paper but an understanding of the problem that comes with digitizing color is needed. Printed color documents are made in combinations of cyan, magenta, yellow and black, and paintings and other artwork are created with all colors. Transferring between color models (print to computer) creates problems because some colors cannot be displayed on a computer, so some images may not look exactly like the original. This makes it very important to check colors after scanning to make sure they are displayed as realistically as possible. With artwork this is all the more important because all the information is visual. ����������� The next thing to consider is file sizes and formats. The larger the image resolution is the larger the file size is going to be. Usually you would want a large picture, especially for artwork, but if it�s too large it will take longer to load and may end up frustrating the user more than helping them. Another issue to deal with file sizes is color depth. An image that only takes its colors from a palette of only 256 colors (8 bit color) will be much smaller than one that uses a truecolor palette (24 bit color), with over 16 million colors. The trade off there is how the colors look; an image with only a few solid colors will be fine in 8 bit while an image with a wide array of colors will look much worse. ����������� All the color and file size issues come together in choosing the type of file to save the image in. The most common file types used for web pages are JPEG and GIF. JPEG is a compressed file format that can display up to 24 bit color depth. It can be done at different levels of compression to make files smaller but it will result in a loss of quality. This is probably the image format to display full color images because it reduces the file size a lot with out making the image look too bad, being a compromise between file size and image quality. GIF on the other hand was made with bi-tonal, grayscale, and images with few colors in mind. It only allows 256 colors, but it creates its palette based on the colors in the original picture. So for an image with only a few colors the quality will be very good, but for a detailed photograph or painting the quality will be quite poor. This format is good for digitized text that only has black text on white or off white paper. It creates very small files which load quickly and take up very little memory. The TIFF format is what is usually used when an image is initially scanned. It is a truecolor format that does allow compression but even then is usually larger than most other file types. TIFF is a good format for the archiving of images. The library can keep the original TIFF files stored somewhere and used converted versions to display on a web page.40 PDF is a file format created by the Adobe company to display documents. It is a very popular format among researchers and in some business circles because it allows some compression, passwords, creation of a table of contents, searchable text, and no loss on image quality. Unlike the other file formats that are pixel based, meaning they have actually numbers saved for each pixel on the screen, PDF is a vector based format where it saves equations (called splines) that draw the text and images in the document. This allows a person to zoom in and out of a PDF document without any loss in quality. That can be a benefit for texts with small print or detailed pictures. PDF files tend to be larger than other formats and require an Adobe Acrobat reader to view them. This may be a good choice for large images or books that are going to be downloaded as a whole because the entire book can be put into one file. ����������� In order to do anything with the digitized images some consideration must be given to the software used to manipulate the images. There are many different brands of image manipulation software on the market, and they range from around ten dollars to many hundreds of dollars. Adobe Photoshop is the most popular of these software programs. It enables the user to do almost any photo editing they need to and it lets you convert between file formats giving you choices in compression quality. If the library decides to save an image as a PDF file, then they will need either Photoshop or Adobe Acrobat (usually both) because PDF is a proprietary format and Adobe owns the rights to it. Another software type to consider is some form of OCR program. OCR, optical character recognition, is a program that will take the scanned image and extract the text from it, so that the library can make a fully text searchable document. No OCR program is perfect and there will always be errors with any large document. This means that the choice has to be made between having someone read through the entire document and editing it and leaving the errors and hoping the reader will be able to figure it out on their own. OCR is best used with texts in �modern� fonts, from around 1920 forward and with documents where the letters are not smeared or too faded and the pages are relatively stain free because the OCR will pick that up and it will cause errors.41 ����������� After scanning has been done and the images are on the computer the next consideration is cataloging them. Many things in special collections are hard to catalog because they may not be traditional books or they may be art work or in some other format. Even when they are cataloged on the shelf, keeping them organized on a computer in a logical format is a different matter. Each item should have some information on its author, date of publication or creation, a title, and a summary of the image�s details.42 Other categories can be used based on the type of item.43 When transferring to metadata other things must be included in the cataloging to inform users and librarians about the image itself. Things like the image size, format, date created, resolution and other descriptive items should be recorded.44 There are several metadata methods currently used like TEI (Text Encoded Initiative), EAD (Encoded Archival Description), and DC (Dublin Core). Each is slightly different and it would be up to the special collections department to determine which is best for their collection.45 A cataloging issue which is sometimes overlooked with computer files is the naming convention. Assigning user created descriptive names may seem helpful, but if there is no order or method to it, you quickly end up with list of names with nothing connecting them as a group. Another way to name files is sequentially but that has the opposite problem in that there is nothing describing them and the user may have to refer back often to documentation to find the files they need. Usually the best naming convention is one that combines the two with a short name that describes that set of images with a number that defines it sequentially or for documentation purposes. ����������� The ����������� One thing
to keep in mind is that even though the vast majority of digitized items will
be text, that�s not the only type of material that can be digitized. The ����������� Other large scale digitization projects have been started that involve many people and organizations sharing resources and receiving grants. The Library of Congress has started the American Memory Project. The American Memory homepage allows anyone to look at �manuscripts, prints, photographs, posters, maps, sound recordings, motion pictures, books, pamphlets, and sheet music,� all free to anyone and online. They undertake special projects like �The James Madison Papers� which has many of Mr. Madison�s documents plus information about him and his work making it not only a research tool, but an educational one.48 In North Carolina the State Library of North Carolina runs the NC ECHO (Exploring Cultural Heritage Online) project. It gives any library, museum, or other organization help in digitizing some of their collection, by giving information, training, and even grants to help pay for the work. This helps smaller institutions who would like to get some of the things they own online, but may not have the resources to do it a chance to make it happen.49 ����������� Digitization has been very popular among special collections departments over the past decade or more, but not everyone thinks all the interest is well placed. Stuart Lee, the author of Digital Imaging: A Practical Guide, in a separate article debates the pros and cons of digitization making a good case for both. In his conclusion he never makes a stand as it being good or bad, but says that some debate is good and that we should not compare the possible results of digitizing vs. not digitizing, but rather look at all areas and see if there is a place that time and money would be better spent.50 Michael Gorman takes a much more negative view, making the argument that digitization isn�t the greatest development for libraries, but rather it�s just another tool to get information out there. He mentions how when he started as a librarian the talk was about how microforms were going to revolutionize the field; with people having their personal microcard readers and the entire Library of Congress would be on microfiche. Today that sounds silly but as new advancements are made the focus changes and he argues that we should use digitization but stick to what has always been the library�s main interest, the printed word.51 There is even a segment of people out there who believe that digitizing some types of artifacts is unethical. They argue that by digitizing and putting it on computers that many of the people from places the artifacts are from (in this example Africa) would not have access to them, and therefore not able to study them, and that we would be keeping materials from them and serving our own interests. In response they provide a set of �rules� to be followed when dealing with this type of materials.52 ����������� Since
digitization is still a relatively new field there are
still advances to be made. Some advances will come as the technology naturally
improves. As time goes by new and better scanners, computers, and software will
be developed as well as more people having access to high speed internet
connections. This will make images better and make it possible to put larger
and better quality files online. Another area for improvement is in OCR
technology. As of now most OCR programs read only English or the other most
frequently spoken languages. In some documents written in Latin special
characters were created as abbreviations for commonly used words or phrases.
When a traditional Latin OCR program is used they are read in wrong. So a
researcher at the ����������� Digitization has become very popular recently and is probably only going to become more so in the future. It can be a very valuable tool for the library to make its special collections available to a larger audience. It is not a simple process though and much thought and planning must be put into selecting what to digitize and on what procedures to use. The whole procedure can be lengthy and the library staff members who take part in it must be knowledgeable of all the factors involved. If the proper time and effort is put into a digitization project the outcome can be high-quality and benefit many people. End Notes ����������� 1. Nadia Nasr, �A Look at the Digitization Process,� Mississippi Libraries 66 no 4, Winter 2002, Library
Literature & Information Science Full Text, Jackson Library, [database
on-line]; available from <http://library.uncg.edu/dbs/>; Internet; accessed
����������� 2. Stuart
D. Lee, Digital Imaging: A Practical
Handbook ( ����������� 3. Paul Conway, Preservation in the Digital World (Washington DC: The Commission on Preservation and Access, 1996), 8. ����������� 4. Ibid., 12. ����������� ����������� 5. Ron Chepesiuk, �Digitizing Rare Materials: Special Collections
Go Global,� American Libraries 32 no
5, May 2001, Library Literature &
Information Science Full Text, Jackson Library, [database on-line];
available from <http://library.uncg.edu/dbs>; Internet; accessed ����������� 6. Alice Prochaska, �Special Collections in an Internation
Perspective,� Library Trends 52 no 1, Summer 2003, Library Literature & Information Science
Full Text, Jackson Library, [database on-line]; available from
<http://library.uncg.edu/dbs>; Internet; accessed ����������� 7. Lee, Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook, 4. ����������� 8. Ibid, 6. ����������� 9. Chepesiuk. ����������� 10. Chepesiuk. ����������� ����������� 11. Lee, Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook,7. ����������� 12. Tami
Morse McGill, �Rapid Implementation of a Large-Scale Text Digitization Project:
���������� 13. Frances Groen, �Strategic Issues in
Digitization Initiatives in Special Collections,� ARL Proceedings 134 (1999), [journal on-line]; available from
<http://www.arl.org/arl/proceedings/134/groen.html>; Internet; accessed ����������� 14. Lee, Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook, 14. ����������� 15. Groen. ����������� 16. Selecting Research Collections for
Digitization, August 1998 [on-line]; available from
<http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/hazen/pub74.html>; Internet; accessed ����������� 17. Groen. ����������� 18. Lee, Digital Imaging: A Practical Handbook, 11. ����������� ����������� 19. McGill. ����������� 20. Stuart
D Lee, �Digitization: Is It Worth It?.� Computer in Libraries 21 no 5, May 2001, Library Literature & Information Science Full Text, Jackson
Library, [database on-line]; available from
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