The main points of morphological description are process of morphology, morphophonemics, and parts of speech. Process of morphology covers affixation, reduplication, compound, suppletion, vowel change, clipping, blending, vowel change, suplition, suprasegmental morpheme, and zero morpheme (Stageberg, 1967; Payne, 1985; Samsuri, 1991). Morphophonemics covers assimilation, dissimilation, synthesis, change of syllabic vowel, stress shift, and gradation. Parts of speech consist of noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pre/postposition, conjunction, numeral, interjection, article, and pronoun. Since morphology is a part of grammar we must consider the grammatical categories which covers number, person, gender, tense, aspect, mode, voice, possession (allocation), and subject and object reference (Hockett, 1958; Elson & Pickett 1976). Nida (1962:167) adds some more categories such as identification, tangibility, definite/indefinite, proper/common, location (near or far), shape (long/slender, flat/round), and animateness. Grammatical categories are a part of the grammatical core which consists of (Hockett, 1958:265): 1) parts of speech system: noun, verb, etc. 2) grammatical categories: number, person, gender, tense, aspect, mode, voice, possession (allocation), and subject and object reference. Subject-Object reference means that the verbs are inflected to show the person and number of subject (Gleason, 1961:238). Sometimes it is also called agreement. 3) functors: a) substitute (he, all, etc) b) markers (was, did, etc) c) inflectional affixes ( ed, s, etc.) d) derivational affixes ( er, y, etc.) 4) and construction type and construction 3.2.1 Affixation Affix means any morpheme that is added to another morpheme. The affix that is added at the beginning of another morpheme is called prefix, the one at the end is suffix, and the one that is inserted in the middle of the other morpheme is infix. In Indonesian there is another form what we call confix, that is two or more affixes that always come together to make a new word, such as ke an in kelaparan, kedi nginan etc. Another kind of affix is suprafix, that is to make a new word by adding or changing the stress, the tone, the length, or the pause. In Chatino (Elson and Pickett, 1962:13) for instance, ku 'to eat' with a high tone means 'he eats', with a low tone means 'you eat'. The high tone shows the third person actor and the low tone shows the second person actor. Stress shift is the shift of the stress from one syllable to another syllable, like /`transport/ as a noun and /tran`sport/ as a verb. Another form of affixation is simulfix ( simultaneous affix); it is the addition of a phoneme or the modification the phoneme (voicing, etc.) at the initial or final consonant of the stem (banyak => mbanyak, rangka => rangkah). This could be applied to any morphemic features other than those which are considered to be composed of suprasegmental phonemes. The example of simulfix is the completive aspect signaled by a feature of palatalization simulfixed to roots beginning with /?/ or /h/, and by a component of voicing simulfixed to roots beginning with voiceless consonants other than /?/ or /h/ (Elson &Pickett, 1976) . Examples of prefix: in Indonesian 'di ' in 'dipukul' means passive, in English 'un ' in 'unhappy' means not (the opposite). Examples of suffix: in Indonesian ' an' in 'makanan' means noun marker, in English ' ly' in 'happily' as adverb marker. The example of infix is er in 'gerigi'. Other forms are circumfix and interfix; circumfix is the combination of affixes but not confix; interfix is a kind of infix which occurs in combining two elements such as e in 'tag e reise' (day's of journey) the combination of 'tag' and 'reise' in Indo German (Chaer, 1994:181). Some bound morphemes have some allomorph. The allomorph is the variation of a morpheme, for instance, the Indonesian morpheme meN has the allomorphs: me , me? , men , me� , and mem . They are mutually exclusive (comlementary distribution) meaning that each allomorph has its own distribution, they never occur at the same environment; meN becomes me? when the root begins with vowel or /g/, becomes me� when the root begins with /s/, etc. The afffixes can also be divided into inflection and derivation. They are called inflection when the new form has the same word class as the previous stem, such as s in 'books', and er in 'bigger'. The new word is usually closed, meaning that it cannot be affixed anymore. They are called derivation when the new form has different class from the previous stem, such as ment in 'assignment' and er in 'teacher'. Bound morphemes can be bound roots (eg: ceive) or affixes. Another bound form is clitic. The differences between the affixes and the clitics are that the meaning of clitic is not easy to explain and the clitics are not bound to certain word class. In Indonesian, for examples, are 'pun' and ' lah' (Verhaar, 1999). Clitics are called proclitics if they are preposed to the form to which they are attached and enclitic if they are in postposed position. Verhaar (1999) gives some characteristics of clitic as follows: 1) it is usually short, 2) it is not stressed, 3) its meaning is not easy to describe, 4) it is not tied to a certain word class. Both Verhaar and Chaer (1994) believe that it is difficult to decide whether the clitic is free or bound morphemes. The clitic ' lah' in Indonesian in 'Adiklah yang mencuri uang itu.' can be inserted with 'mu', so it becomes 'Adikmulah yang mencuri uang itu.' Clitic is different from affix because an affix is always attached to certain class of word, while clitic may be attached to several classes of word. Clitics are bound morphemes, never in isolation. They are neither full words nor, in strict sense, merely prefixes or parts of a word. Instead they belong to an intermediate class of �clitics� unaccented words which must lean to support (the term 'clitic' is ultimately from the Greek word for 'leaning') on a neighbouring full word in their construction. Clitics are at least a marginal phenomenon in many languages. Chaer includes 'ku', 'mu', 'kau', and 'nya' in clitics. According to Elson and Pickett (1969:97), the form 'am' in 'I'm going' is also clitic. The 'm' is attached to 'I', but it fills the slot verb phrase; it is not the part of the subject 'I'. So is the 'll' in 'I'll hit you' (Nida, 1962:102). An affix can refer to tense, aspect, voice, mode, case, agreement, person, number, gender, etc. In English the affix ed refers to tense, in Indonesian the prefix di refers to voice, the suffix s in 'books' refers to number, and in Tobati the suffixes re refers to accusative case. 3.2.2 Reduplication When the affix is the same form exactly as part or all of the stem, it is called reduplication. In other words we can also say that reduplication is the formation of word by reduplicating the stem. In Indonesian we can find the words: rumah rumah, sapi sapi which means plural form of the stem, makan makan, minum minum etc. which means being done for pleasure. In rumah rumah, and minum minum, the stem is reduplicated fully or completely, in menari nari and berlari lari, only a part of the stem is reduplicated. |