In the 5th century BC the vast Persian Empire attempted to conquer
Greece. If the Persians had succeeded, they would have set up
local tyrants, called satraps, to rule Greece and would have crushed the
 first stirrings of democracy in Europe. The survival of
 Greek culture and political ideals depended on the ability of the small,
disunited Greek city-states to band  together and defend themselves
against Persia's overwhelming strength. The struggle, known in
Western history as the Persian Wars, or Greco-Persian Wars,lasted 20
years--from 499 to 479 BC.

Persia already numbered among its conquests the Greek cities of
 Ionia in Asia Minor, where Greek civilization first flourished.
The Persian Wars began when some of these cities revolted against Darius I,
Persia's king, in 499 BC.

Athens sent 20 ships to aid the Ionians. Before the Persians crushed
the revolt, the Greeks burned Sardis, capital of Lydia. Angered, Darius
determined to conquer Athens and extend his empire westward beyond the
Aegean Sea.

In 492 BC Darius gathered together a great military force and sent 600 ships
 across the Hellespont. A sudden storm wrecked half his fleet when it was
rounding rocky Mount Athos on the Macedonian coast. Two years later Darius dispatched a new battle fleet of 600 triremes. This time his powerful galleys
crossed the Aegean Sea without mishap and arrived safely off Attica,
the part of Greece that surrounds the city of Athens.

The Persians landed on the plain of Marathon, about 25 miles
(40 kilometers) from Athens. When the Athenians learned of their arrival,
they sent a swift runner, Pheidippides, to ask Sparta for aid, but the
Spartans, who were conducting a religious festival, could not march until
the moon was full. Meanwhile the small Athenian army encamped in the
foothills on the edge of the Marathon Plain.

The Athenian general Miltiades ordered his small force to advance. He had
arranged his men so as to have the greatest strength in the wings. As he
expected, his center was driven back. The two wings then united behind
the enemy. Thus hemmed in, the Persians' bows and arrows were of little use.
The stout Greek spears spread death and terror. The invaders
rushed in panic to their ships. The Greek historian Herodotus says
the Persians lost 6,400 men against only 192 on the Greek side. Thus
ended the battle of Marathon (490 BC), one of the decisive
battles of the world.

Darius planned another expedition, but he died before preparations
were completed. This gave the Greeks a ten-year period to prepare for
 the next battles. Athens built up its naval supremacy in the Aegean
under the guidance of Themistocles.

In 480 BC the Persians returned, led by King Xerxes, the son of Darius.
To avoid another shipwreck off Mount Athos, Xerxes had a canal
dug behind the promontory. Across the Hellespont he had the Phoenicians
and Egyptians place two bridges of ships, held together by
cables of flax and papyrus. A storm destroyed the bridges, but
Xerxes ordered the workers to replace them. For seven days and
nights his soldiers marched across the bridges.

On the way to Athens, Xerxes found a small force of Greek soldiers
holding the narrow pass of Thermopylae, which guarded the way
to central Greece. The force was led by Leonidas, king of Sparta. Xerxes
sent a message ordering the Greeks to deliver their arms.
"Come and take them," replied Leonidas.

For two days the Greeks' long spears held the pass. Then a Greek traitor
 told Xerxes of a roundabout path over the mountains. When
Leonidas saw the enemy approaching from the rear, he dismissed
his men except the 300 Spartans, who were bound, like himself, to conquer
or die. Leonidas was one of the first to fall. Around their leader's body the
gallant Spartans fought first with their swords, then with their hands, until
they were slain to the last man.

The Persians moved on to Attica and found it deserted. They set fire to
Athens with flaming arrows. Xerxes' fleet held the Athenian ships bottled up
between the coast of Attica and the island of Salamis. His ships outnumbered
the Greek ships three to one. The Persians had expected an easy victory,
but one after another their ships were sunk or crippled.

Crowded into the narrow strait, the heavy Persian vessels moved with difficulty.
The lighter Greek ships rowed out from a circular formation and rammed their
prows into the clumsy enemy vessels. Two hundred Persian ships were sunk,
others were captured, and the rest fled. Xerxes and his forces
hastened back to Persia.

Soon after, the rest of the Persian army was scattered at Plataea (479 BC).
In the same year Xerxes' fleet was defeated at Mycale. Although a treaty
was not signed until 30 years later, the threat of Persian
domination was ended.