Teasers
There could be several reasons for cultural variations in development, all of which might sound like the right one, however I believe that there is more than just one unified concept, which explains this complicated topic. One possible reason for cultural variation could be the fact that all cultures differ in where they live. One culture may have to develop unique from another culture, because of the climate or landscape in which they live. While yet another culture might develop differently due to the fact that they only have a certain type of food source available to them. There could be hundreds of different reasons, none of which is more fitting than another.
One thing common to all people, independent of culture, is the ability to adapt to almost any situation, which exists. People are all very capable, because of their ability to think and reason, to look at any situation and discover a way to not only survive, but to prosper as well. As an example taken from the life of early man, if a food supply ran out the people looked to other land areas to settle, and often found that in doing so, they also found a new land where even more resources existed. Adaptation is a very important and unique characteristic to people, which has made us the most intelligent and competent species on the planet. Without this ability, people may have ended up not surviving many changes which have occurred, and we may have ended up extinct like animals who were not able to adapt as necessary to survive.
Are there any universals in human development? If so what are they? One example of a universal is gender-role assignment. All societies appear to socialize boys and girls into gender roles (e.g., allowing more aggressive behavior among boys and encouraging more caring behavior among girls).
There are several universals about how people develop independent of their culture, above is only one of the many that exist. In all cultures there are roles which its members must follow in order to have their cultures survive, the above example is one way in which cultures have existed for hundreds of years, and this practice of raising children continues around the world, though it is more extreme in some areas than in others. Another universal across cultures in regards to development is that to become an adult, all children must go through some rite of passage, where they prove to themselves and others, that they are ready for adulthood. These rites of passage are different from culture to culture, but they still exist in some form in all cultures.
Cultural universals in human development exist across the world in all cultures, because they are practices which have proven successful in the survival of people for hundreds of years. This is not to say that these practices are all good practices, for there are some which are being thought of as outdated and improper for our current thinking (such as the role women play in culture) but they have been effective until now. It will be very interesting to watch and see how these cultural universals exist in later years, to see if they remain as they have always been, or if changes in people's thinking will change these practices.
How can we explain cross-cultural differences in such behaviors as dependence and independence? Part of the answer depends on where infants sleep after they are born. The United States is known as a culture that greatly emphasizes individual achievement; parents generally place babies in their own cribs in their own rooms. Japan, a collectivist culture, encourages dependence; children are allowed to sleep with parents, often for many years. How does this affect development?
Independence is practiced by most Western parents, versus dependence or even interdependence found among the majority of Asian parents. When a newborn arrives, in the world, independent of its particular culture, it has many basic needs that require immediate attention. How these needs are met and the manner in which infants are socialized varies considerably across cultures and often among ethnic groups within a single society.
All babies require sleep, but psychological, anthropological, and even pediatric literature reveals considerable variation in cultural sleeping arrangements. According to Harkness and Super, the way sleep is organized, including where and with whom, is an intriguing aspect of culture because, although it is a private rather than public behavior, it is highly structured by different societies and tends to be relatively resistant to change.
Researchers point out the parent's play a primary role in the assignment of settings and routines for sleep, thus perpetuating a cycle of culture transmission within the privileged context of the family. Characterizing sleep management as one of the earliest culturally determined parent-child interactions, Wolf suggests that their study may provide a useful framework for interpreting cross-cultural differences in the varying emphases placed on such behaviors as autonomy and dependence.
Infants first develop trust and attachment as a result of sleeping with parents. In the Japanese culture, in which a mother sleeps with the child for an even longer period, interdependence would appear to be even stronger. In the examination of sleep practices among parents in Japan, Italy, and the United States, Wolf and others conclude that as in other childrearing practices, it may not be the specific practice itself, but rather context and values that are the most important factors.
Adolescents in many of the world's cultures confront the problem of identity, or trying to answer the question "Who am I?" For some, living in Nigeria, it is a relatively easy task. For others, growing up bicultural in New York City, it is more difficult.
In areas where one particular culture is the dominant, if not the only culture, in that area, it is more likely that an individual will be able to answer the question "Who am I?" and not be confused about their identity. For some living in Nigeria for example, there is less influence of other cultures to confuse perspectives. Society is structured in a manner so that each individual has a particular place and job therefore, when asked, "Who am I?" the question does not seem difficult. Each individual may have many answers to the question depending on the situation, but culturally, each individual has a specific role.
In other areas such as New York City, there are many aspects of the culture that contribute to an individual perspective of who they are. In New York City, the culture is fast pace, work oriented and centrally focused. People who live in that society and experience different aspects of their own personal culture, may find it difficult to live in a place that does not understand why certain practices take place, or why other customs are followed. A child or individual that was raised in this type of society may find it more difficult to answer the "Who am I?" Question because they feel a part of both. They can feel pressure to conform to both cultures thus confusing specific roles in one particular culture.
Eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia are common in many Western societies. Do young people throughout the world all strive to attain the ideal body image? You may be surprised by some of the answers found in Japan, Australia, and other countries.
Eating disorders are a topic of concern for children and adolescents in many cultures. The eating disorders of anorexia nervosa and bulimia are most common in western, industrialized societies. Many non-industrialized societies view a rounded, heavier body type as a sign of wealth and prosperity, and encourage children and adults to eat well. Socialization leads people from different cultures to develop different ideas regarding the ideal body type. While people in the United States and Great Britain place a high value on a slender figure, people in Malaysia and Ghana are less concerned about weight and more concerned with fulfilling parental expectations. In the majority of cultures, adolescent females are the population most likely to be influenced by body image stereotypes and the most likely to suffer from eating disorders.
How do different cultures view their elderly? Is grand parenting the same everywhere? We'll give you some answers to these questions from China, Japan, and the United States.
Today, people are living longer than ever before (Gardiner, p. 100) and the images we have of people as they grow older vary by the culture. For example, most Native American tribes have a hierarchy of elders who are held in high respect for their knowledge, whereas in some Western societies, parents or other relatives in their later years are sometimes seen as burdens (Gardiner, p. 77). In traditional societies, age is frequently associated with a gain in community status (Gardiner, p. 176). This is not the case in some Western cultures, notably North America, where stereotypes have portrayed the elderly as frail individuals usually in poor health and unable to take care of them selves (Gardiner, p. 100). For many generations, respect for those who have reached their later years has been higher in Japan, China, and many other countries than it has in the United States.
There are also similarities and differences across various cultural settings about the meaning of grandparenthood and its function. Traditionally in Japan, a nation known for its extended family structure, grandparents have been respected and honored. But, due to the modernization and urbanization of the culture, these roles are changing as the number of extended families is decreasing (Gardiner, p. 236).
In China, grandparents have historically played a critical function in family life and have had a very positive influence on their grandchildren. The role grandparents play largely depends on the sex of their own child as well as the sex of their grandchildren (Gardiner, p. 236). Grandparents feel that their son's children are considered to be their 'true' grandchildren whereas they feel no great need to be responsible for the children of their daughter for their daughter's children are considered the children of their son-in-law (Gardiner, p. 237).
In the United States, grandparents report that they are generally happy in their role and the majority find it more enjoyable then parenting (Gardiner, p. 237). Four-generation families are also becoming more common. And, an increasing number of African-American, Asian American and Hispanic American children are now living with their grandparents.
As societies change or become modernized and as the life span increases, the role of the elderly and grandparents will also change.
How does family life differ from one culture to another? In some societies, the roles of mothers and fathers may surprise you. Did you know children in some cultures become more closely attached to their fathers than to their mothers? Why would this be the case? We'll find out later in this book.
Family would not be the same in every culture, because then there would not be any reason to study cross-cultural child development or any reason to study different cultures. Each society has it's own beliefs about how the family life should be. Each family is different in the way they raise their children. Some children are raised as a community, not just by a mother and a father, or even only by one parent. In the United States, it is very common to see single parents, but it is usually more common to see single mothers rather than single fathers. The sleeping arrangements of each culture are also different. Some cultures have their children sleeping in the same bed as their parents, or the same rooms, and others, like the United States, have their children sleeping in their own bedroom when they get to be a certain age. The ways families eat, or their habits may even vary in each culture. There are cultures that may always end together as a family, or others that just prepare their own food and eat alone. There are groups that gather the food together, and make sure that all in their community have something to eat. I think that the world is a more interesting place with diversity, and having diversity and different cultures enables us to study the differences and compare and contrast them to have something interesting to study. There probably would not be research done on cross-cultural child development, or any kind of Vygotskian theories if it was not for the differences in culture. Then, we would not have anything to study!
An increasingly common disorder among older Adults today is Alzheimer's disease. Did you know that people suffering from this disease are treated differently by their caregivers if the patient and caregiver are Hispanic, Native American, or Anglo?
As someone who previously worked in a nursing home facility, I found this point to be very interesting. I looked back at my own experience and found that I had seen this happen in the facility where I worked, though it is only something that I noticed because I looked back and looked to see if this was happening. Though this is occurring, it is not something overtly obvious to someone not looking to see if this is happening, rather it is a very subtle practice.
I can easily see why someone of a particular race would give better care to someone of their own race, than to someone not of their own race. The reason I feel that people would give care in this manner is because they feel a deeper connection to someone of their own race, and may even think of that patient as a family member. It would be natural for someone to give better care to someone in their own family, than to someone whom they have little or no connection to in the real world. I do not feel that people would give poor care to their other patients, based on the fact that they were not of the same race as the caregiver. I do not see this to be too much of a problem however, because there are a wide variety of caregivers representing a wide range of races from across the world. And there is certainly enough people giving care to a patient at all times, as to make up for the lack deep attention to those people whose caregivers are of a different race.
What's important in selecting a marriage partner-money, good looks, security, health? You'll be surprised at some of the views expressed by men and women from cultures around the world. How many chickens or cows do you think you're worth on the marriage market?
In a study done by Buss, subjects from thirty-seven cultures were asked to rank the important characteristics that they look for in a mate. Across cultures, men and women look for mates that are kind, understanding, intelligent, had an exciting personality and was healthy. One variation from this study was chastity. In some cultures, it was unimportant and in some, it was very important (Gardiner and Kosmitzki 2002).
In the Hindu religion, a man is considered spiritually incomplete and marriage is spiritual growth. In the Chinese tradition, a long-term relationship between a man and a woman is a spiritual necessity.
Men were found to be looking for women who were younger than they are and women looked for men who were older. All cultures looked for physical appearance when looking for a mate.
In Estonia and China, a good housekeeper was highly valued. In Nigeria and Iran, refinement/neatness was highly valued (Gardiner and Kosmitzki 2002).