Stone Age - Human and Evolution

Human Evolution from 2Mil. - 451 AD

Lower Paleolithic: c. 2 Mil. - 100,000 BC

Sometimes lacking attention, there was an Egypt before the Pharaohs. While we may still have no conclusive proof,� many signs point to one of the first civilizations created by human-like beings might have been in the Nile Valley around 700,000 years ago, if not earlier.

For nomadic tribes of hunter-gatherers, as some anthropologists believe our ancestors were, the fertile Nile Valley, with its readily available water, game, and arable land, must have looked inviting indeed. Additionally, this period is believed to have been much more temperate and rainy than the Nile Valley of today, and so one must imagine this area to be filled with wide expanses of grasslands, teeming with life, similar to the savannas of southern and eastern Africa.

At the very least, we can say early humans were in Egypt 700,000 years ago for certain. To date, the oldest tools found in the lower Nile Valley have been found in and near the cliffs of Abu Simbel (prior to its move after the creation of Lake Nasser).� Geological evidence indicates they are around 700,000 years

old, giving a fairly good estimate as to when a Stone Age people were living in the area. ?Slightly? later, dating to approximately 500,000 years ago, are various finds of stone tools, including the stone axes that the Lower Paleolithic is noted for.

Middle Paleolithic: 100,000 - 30,000 BC

Between the Lower and Middle Paleolithic eras, the Abbassia Pluvial ended and the Sahara returned to a desert state. By this time Homo erectus had evolved into Homo neanderthalensis, and began to escape the encroaching desert by migrating to the Nile Valley and to the oases that were left, such as the one at Kharga.

Upper Paleolithic: 30,000 - 10,000 BC

Some time around the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, or in the few centuries before it, the desert once again reclaimed the Sahara region. Fleeing the desert, many of the peoples settled in the area migrated closer and closer to the Nile. It is possibly during this time that various tribes began to interact, providing a much wider gene pool on which to draw. It was about this time that the demise of the various Paleolithic peoples in Egypt began.

Epipaleolithic: 10,000 - c. 5,500 BC

The Epipaleolithic years are largely a transition between the Paleolithic and the Predynastic time periods in ancient Egypt, a time between the hunter-gatherers of before and the appearance of the true farming of the village-dwelling cultures after 5500 BC. Most of the information from this era comes from the site of El Kab, nestled between the eastern bank of the Nile and the Red Sea Hills. Before the discoveries at El Kab, it was thought that Paleolithic artifacts, even those dating

to the Epipaleolithic, would not be found on the floodplain of the Nile, simply because of the action of the inundation. However, in the case of many of the artifact sites, it was the inundation that preserved them, as the Nile deposited layer upon layer of soil each year without washing the artifacts away.

Predynastic (5,500 - 3,100 BC)

Beginning just before the Predynastic period, Egyptian culture was already beginning to resemble greatly the Pharaonic ages that would soon come after, and rapidly at that. In a transition period of a thousand years (about which little is still known), nearly all the archetypal characteristics appeared, and beginning in 5500 BC we find evidence of organized, permanent settlements focused around agriculture. Hunting was no longer a major support for existence now that the Egyptian diet was made up of domesticated cattle, sheep, pigs and goats, as well as cereal grains such as wheat and barley. Artifacts of stone were supplemented by those of metal, and the crafts of basketry, pottery, weaving, and the tanning of animal hides became part of the daily life. The transition from primitive nomadic tribes to traditional civilization was nearly complete.

Throughout most of its pre-dynastic history Egypt encompassed a multiplicity of settlements which gradually became small tribal kingdoms. These kingdoms evolved into two loosely confederated states: one encompassed the Nile valley up to the Delta (with the Naqada dominating) with Hierakonpolis as capital, represented by the deities Seth and White Crown; the other encompassed the Delta, with Buto as its capital and represented by the deities Horus and Red Crown.

The two kingdoms vied for power over all the land of Egypt. This struggle led to the victory of the south and the unification of the Two Lands in 3,100 BC under the command of Menes who may also known as Narmer. This was the beginning of the dynastic period of the Pharaohs.

Dynastic Egypt

The Early Dynastic or Archaeic Period (3,100-2,686 BC)

One of the most famous periods of Egypt, the Early Dynastic period, is also one of the most mysterious. We know that Menes established what we believe to be the first dynasty of Egypt, but who Menes actually was is unknown, though guesses include Narmer and Aha. Menes is credited with establishing the city of Memphis and his immediate ancestry developed a complex social and religious system, including the erection of many temples and public buildings. Also the the royal burial grounds at Saqqara and Abydos became sites of highly developed mastabas.

The Early Dynastic period only lasted for two dynasties, with the Second Dynasty lasting from 2,980 to 2,686 BC. It was characterized by regional disputes and a decentralization of Pharaonic authority, a process which was only temporarily halted by the Pharaoh Raneb, also called Hotepsekhemwy. These regional contentions were perhaps caused by any number of problems, including religious difference between the north and south, a continued power struggle, or as often the case in later periods, food shortages.

The Old Kingdom (2686-2181BC)

The Old Kingdom is really one of the truly golden ages of Egypt.� Burial practices continued to develop during the Third Dynasty, lasting from 2,686-2,613 BC, which marked the beginnings of the Old Kingdom. The first of Egypt?s pyramids were constructed during the 27th century BC. The Step Pyramid of Saqqara built for King Zoser by his chief architect Imhotep, who later generations deified, is considered by many to be the first pyramid ever constructed in Egypt. Prior to this, most royal tombs were constructed of sun-dried bricks. Zoser?s gargantuan step pyramid attested to the pharaoh?s power and established the pyramid as the pre-eminent Pharaonic burial structure. During Zoser?s rule the Sun God Ra attained a supra-eminent place over all other Egyptian deities.

The Fourth Dynasty (2,613-2,494 BC) of Egypt created the only surviving wonder of the ancient world, the Great Pyramid.� This period saw considerable expansion of Egypt?s territories, as well as pyramid construction. King Sneferu constructed the Red Pyramid at Dahshur near Saqqara and the Pyramid of Meidum in Al-Fayoum. He also sent military expeditions as far as Libya and Nubia. During his reign trading along the Nile flourished. Sneferu?s descendants, Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre) and Mycerinus (Menkaure) were the last three kings of the Fourth Dynasty. These three pharaohs built the pyramids of Giza.

Egypt under Cheops became the first state in the history of the world to be governed according to an organized system. The Fourth Dynasty also extended trade relations with the Near East and mined and smelted copper in Nubia.

The Fifth Dynasty (2,490-2,330 BC) was marked by a relative decline in Pharaonic power and wealth, evidenced by the smaller pyramids of Abu Sir built during this period. The pharaohs ceased to be absolute monarchs and began to share power with the aristocracy and high officials. As the independence of the nobility increased, their tombs became larger and were built at increasing distances from the pharaohs.

Worship of the sun god Ra also spread during the Fifth Dynasty. It was during the reign of Unas that religious texts were placed in the pyramids bearing descriptions of the afterworld which were later gathered into the Book of the Dead.

Decentralization of Pharaonic authority increased during the Sixth Dynasty (2,330-2,170 BC) as small provincial principalities emerged to challenge Pharaonic power. The Sixth Dynasty kings were forced to send expeditions as far as Nubia, Libya and Palestine to put down the separatists, but these campaigns served to further erode the central authority. By the reign of the last Sixth Dynasty Pharaoh Pepi II, the Old Kingdom had become a spent force.

The First Intermediate Period (2181-2050BC)

The demise of the Old Kingdom brought a period of chaos and anarchy which characterized the Seventh Dynasty (2,181-2,173 BC). During this brief period over 70 rulers were said to have laid claim to the throne. The Eighth Dynasty (2,173-2,160 BC) followed the same pattern. Civil disorders multiplied and a drought struck Egypt.

Out of the turmoil and Pharaonic inertia, principalities within the realm rose up to challenge the authority of the kings. Achthoes, ruler of Heracleopolis, seized control of Middle Egypt, seized the throne and founded the Ninth Dynasty (2,160-2,130 BC).

The kings of Heracleopolis maintained control over northern Egypt through the Tenth Dynasty (2,130-2,040 BC). However, the rulers of Edfu and Thebes fought over control of Upper Egypt. The battle over Upper Egypt was won by Thebes and its ruler Inyotef Sehertowy founded the Eleventh Dynasty (2,133-1,991BC) with the aim of extending his power over all the land.

The north-south battle for control of Egypt ended with the victory of Nebhepetre Mentuhope II who reunited the country under one king and launched the Middle Kingdom.

The Middle Kingdom (2,050-1,786 BC)

Mentuhope II reigned over Egypt for fifty years and re-established political and social order which in turn revived the economic and artistic development that characterized the glory of the Pharaohs. Trading was resumed and mines were reopened. Expansionist campaigns were relaunched against Libya, Nubia and the Bedouins of the Sinai.

His successors Mentuhope III and Mentuhope IV continued to rule from Thebes, maintaining the strength of the Eleventh Dynasty, building and expanding their kingdom until Amenemhat, a minister during the Eleventh Dynasty, assumed the throne and founded the Twelfth Dynasty (1,991-1,786 BC).

Amenemhat moved his capital from Thebes back to Memphis. From here he annexed Nubia and extended his kingdom to the land of Sham, as far as Syria and Palestine. Al Fayoum became the capital of the Middle Kingdom during the reign of Amenemhat?s son Senusert I. His successors Amenemhat II and Senusert III built the last pyramids in Lahun, Lisht and Hawara.

During this long period provincial governors or nomarchs began to vie for power and threaten the Pharaonic authority and it is said that the power of the nomarchs was gradually eliminated. Over time the central authority weakened, leading to civil disorder and instability and a prolonged period of upheaval.

The Second Intermediate Period (1,786-1,567 BC)

The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties were powerless to put down the Hyskos, tribal warlords with foreign support who seized control of the Delta, establishing the capital of Avaris and moving south. Despite their alien origins (Hyskos means ?Princes of Foreign Lands?) and foreign ties, the Hyskos assumed an Egyptian identity and ruled as pharaohs.

The Hyskos dominion was shaken by Thebes which established the Seventeenth Dynasty and, under Wadikheperre Kamose, laid siege to Avaris. When his successor Ahmosis expelled the Hyskos from Egypt in 1,567 BC, the New Kingdom was born.

The Late Period (1,085-3,22 BC)

The Twenty-First Dynasty was established by successors of Herihor and Smendes who continued to rule Upper and Lower Egypt separately from Thebes and Tanis. But by this period external threats from Libyan invaders and others were eroding Egypt?s power to defend itself. Eventually both Upper and Lower Egypt succumbed to foreign invasions. The Tanites were driven from power by Libyan warriors who established their own Twenty-Second Dynasty.

Upper Egypt held out longer against Nubian invaders until being overrun by the armies of their ruler Piankhi all the way to Memphis. Piankhi?s brother Shabaka marched north to conquer the Delta and reunite Upper and Lower Egypt under the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty of Nubian Kings (747-656 BC). During this period there was an artistic and cultural revival. The Twenty-Fifth Dynasty ended when Assyrian armies captured Memphis and attacked Thebes, driving the Nubian pharaoh Tanutamun back to Nubia.

The Assyrians found a willing Egyptian collaborator in the form of a prince from the Delta. Psammetichus I governed on behalf of the Assyrians until they were forced to withdraw their forces to wage war against the Persian Empire. On the departure of the Assyrians, Psammetichus I declared himself pharaoh and established the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, ruling over a re-united Egypt from his capital at Sa�s in the Delta. This was to be the last great Pharaonic age which witnessed the revival of majestic art and architecture and the introduction of new technologies.

Gradually, though, the power of the kingdom was eroded through invasion, ending ignominiously when Amasis, ?the Drunkard?, was forced to depend on Greek forces to defend his Kingdom against the onslaught of Persian imperial armies.

The Persians first invaded Egypt in 525 BC, initiating a period of foreign domination of the country which lasted until 1952, when an Egyptian republic replaced the monarchy of King Farouk. The conquering Persians established the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty (525-404 BC) which ruled Egypt with an iron hand.

The Persians, under the emperors Cambyses and Darius, completed a canal connecting the Nile with the Red Sea which had been started by the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty king Necho II. They also constructed temples and a new city on the site of what is now called Old Cairo. This was called Babylon in Egypt.

The harshness of Persian rule resulted in revolts against the Persian satraps Xerxes and Artaxerxes which led to the Twenty-Eighth dynasty of the Egyptian ruler Amyrtaeus and his successors. The Egyptian kings of succeeding dynasties were under continual attack by Persians until the Thirtieth and final Pharaonic dynasty was overthrown by Artaxerxes III, remaining under Persian domination until the arrival of Alexander the Great in 332 BC.

Greek Rule (332-30 BC)

After centuries of upheaval and foreign incursions, Egypt was in disarray when Alexander established his own Pharaonic rule, reorganizing the country?s government, founding a new capital city of Alexandria and validating the religion of the pharaohs.

Upon his death in 323 BC, the empire of Alexandria was divided among his Macedonian generals. Ptolemy I thus established the Ptolemaic Dynasty which ruled Egypt for three centuries. Under the Ptolemys Greek became the official language of Egypt and Hellenistic culture and ideas were introduced and synthesized with indigenous Egyptian theology, art, architecture and technology. The Ptolemy?s synthesis of religious ideas resulted in the construction of the temples of Edfu and Kom Ombo, among other sacred structures. Alexandria became a great capital, housing one of history?s greatest libraries.

Gradually Ptolemaic rule was subverted by internal power struggles and foreign intervention. The Romans made inroads into Ptolemaic Egypt, supporting various rulers and factions until attaining total control over the country when Julius Caesar?s armies attacked Alexandria.

Queen Cleopatra VII was the last of the Ptolemaic rulers who reigned under the protection of the Caesar with whom she had a son. With the assassination of Caesar, Mark Antony arrived in Egypt and fell in love with Cleopatra, living with her for 10 years and helping Egypt retain its independence. The fleets of Octavian Caesar destroyed the Egyptian navy in the battle of Actium, driving Antony and Cleopatra to suicide and Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire.

Roman and Byzantine Rule (30BC-638 AD)

Octavian Caesar became the first Roman ruler of Egypt, reigning as the Emperor Augustus. Egypt became the granary of the Roman Empire and remained stable for about 30 years. The Romans, like their Greek predecessors, synthesized many Egyptian beliefs with their own, building temples at Dendara and Esna and Tranjan?s kiosk at Philae. Hellenism remained a dominant cultural force and Alexandria continued to be a centre of Greek learning.

The Christian era began in Egypt with the spectacular biblical Flight of the Holy Family from Palestine. To this day the stages of the journey of Mary, Joseph and their infant Jesus are marked by shrines and churches. According to Coptic tradition, it was not until the arrival of Saint Mark that Christianity was established in Egypt during the reign of Nero. Saint Mark began preaching the gospel in about 40 AD and established the Patriarchate of Alexandria in 61 AD.

The Egyptian Coptic Church expanded over three centuries in spite of Roman persecution of Christian converts throughout the Empire. In 202 AD persecutions against Copts were initiated by the Roman authorities, continuing for nearly a century. In 284 AD, during the reign of the Emperor Diocletian, a bloody massacre of Coptic Christians took place from which the church has dated its calendar. Christianity was legalized and adopted as the official religion of the Roman Empire by the Emperor Constantine.

By the 3rd century AD the Roman Empire was in decline as a result of internal strife, famine and war, finally splitting into eastern and western empires. The eastern empire based in Constantinople became known as the Byzantine empire. The western empire remained centered in Rome.

The legalization of Christianity did not stop Roman persecution of the Coptic Christians because the Byzantine church was based upon fundamentally different beliefs than those of the Coptic Christian church which had adopted a Monophysite belief in the total divinity of Christ, as opposed to the Byzantine belief that Christ was both human and divine. The schism between the Byzantine and Coptic churches was never closed.

The Copts were formally excommunicated from the orthodox church at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD and established their own Patriarchate at Alexandria. The fifth century was also a time when monasticism emerged and the Coptic monasteries of Saint Catherine, Saint Paul and Saint Anthony were established as well as those at Wadi Natrun and Sohaag

Human Evolution - Civilisation and Culture

Hosted by www.Geocities.ws