About the Book

• The Lady and the Unicorn: A Psychological Metaphor



• Dreaming�With Eyes Wide Open: Schizophrenic Hallucinations



• Information Processing in Schizophrenia



• Clarification of our Clinical versus Forensic Function: Dual Relationship



• Art Psychotherapy



• Lord of the Rings: A Psychological Metaphor



• Aviation Psychology



• So, You have just been Passed by a Girl! A Holley Carborator may help



• Approaches in Memory Rehabilitation



• Memory Enhancement Module



• Negaunee Center



• The Final Transition



• Is Deinstitution- alzation a Misnomer



• Token System: a Psychiatric Case Study



• A Token Economy System: Inpatient Psychiatric Population



• Insight: An Aspect of Neurocognition

Information Processing In Schizophrenia

It was proposed by Yates (1966) and Hemsley (1977) that progress toward assessing functional deficits in schizophrenia could be facilitated by viewing schizophrenia in terms of information processing models. Current research (Braff, 2003) within the National Institute of Mental health is identifying the genetics of various neurological information processing deficits, which occur in schizophrenia. The perspective that information proceeds through a series of stages is one of the primary assumptions within the information-processing model. In the classical research by Broadbent (1958), an information-processing model of memory provided a framework, which describes how information flows through a general memory system. Anderson (1985) has found that the memory for an item of information can be significantly improved by the amount of elaboration performed by an individual.

Memory Deficits and Schizophrenia

Slowness in identifying information at the onset, as well as at subsequent stages, makes the information vulnerable to disruption by interference. In schizophrenia, it is well established that there is a deficit in the speed of identifying information (Braff & Saccuzzo, 1981). This alone would make schizophrenics vulnerable both to subsequent interference as well as memory decay (Braff, 1993: Kay, 1982; Sengel & Lovallo, 1985). The slowness of information processing or encoding may in fact help explain the types of thought disorders seen in some types of schizophrenic patients (Asarnow & MacCrimmon, 1982).

A recall deficit in schizophrenia has been theorized to result from a shallowness of processing. Schizophrenic patients seem to be drawn to sensory attributes rather than semantic meanings. In the research study by Kay (1982) it was concluded that schizophrenic patients encode by stimulus salience (physical quality of the stimulus) rather than by semantic relevance (conceptual cues). In this respect, it was found that the pattern of performance of schizophrenics indicated a deficit in the ability to semantically (conceptually) encode information. This would lead to poor organization of semantic material to be remembered.

Memory storage or organization is a major issue in schizophrenic research (Asaad & Shapiro, 1986). The evidence reflects that at least some subgroups of schizophrenic patients are as proficient as normal in basic memory skills, but are deficient in various organizational strategies. An effective organizational strategy prepares information for retrieval by utilizing conceptual, affective, and physical cues concomitantly (Schwartz-Place & Gilmore, 1980; Straube, Barth, & Konig, 1979; Yu & Johnson, 1979).

Another important link in the memory system is the ability to retrieve an experience once it is sensed and stored. Although this may be the last stage in memory processing, it is the most strongly affected in schizophrenia. There are two distinct retrieval processes in memory processing: recognition and recall. Recognition is a more passive process. For example, an individual may be able to recognize an object but be unable to recall its name. Recognition can be facilitated in a number of ways, the most common by utilizing cues. Recall involves the active (effortful) retrieval of information stored in memory. In the recall state, the individual must search his or her memory store for the information in absence of cues. This process is dependent upon a more fully functioning memory system, which encompasses the process of passive recognition. Braff 2003 stated that verbal memory in schizophrenia is one component of information processing which on of the most impaired neurocognitive functions.

Findings from memory studies of individuals suffering from schizophrenia revealed that they have adequate recognition skills. Schizophrenics equal normal individuals in the basic processing required in many recognition tasks (Bauman & Murray, 1968; Koh, Kayton, & Berry, 1973; Magaro & Page, 1982; Nachmani & Cohen, 1969). They have an intact lexical (word) storage (Koh, Kayton, & Schwarz, 1974; Larsen & Fromholt, 1976; Russell & Beekhuis, 1976). (See Knight & Sims-Knight, 1980, for a review of this research).

Kay (1982) has stated that research on verbal encoding has shown that persons with schizophrenia are at a disadvantage in the recall process. They do not use a conceptual structure normally required in recall as compared to recognition (Frame & Oltmanns, 1982; Koh, Kayton, & Berry, 1973; Nachmani & Cohen, 1969). There are times, however, when individuals are incapable of retrieving information from their vast storehouse of memory. The question of when and at what stage this recall deficit emerges is important in understanding its nature. This recall deficit points to one of the earliest sites of dysfunction within higher cognitive information processing. Remediation and or compensation could be targeted on the recall functions, thus minimizing its negative impact upon subsequent higher cognitive functioning.

Memory recall deficits in schizophrenia have been linked with inadequate effort and sustained attention to retrieve information (Abramczyk, Jordon, & Hegel, 1983). Interference is also a potential cause of this deficit as a result of stimulation from both internal and external distractions, which competes with the information to be recalled, either at the time of learning or at the time of recall (Frame & Oltmanns, 1982; Harvey, Earle-Boyer, & Levinson, 1986). The exact location of the earliest deficit in information processing in schizophrenia has not yet been isolated and is an area in need of further research.

It is fairly well established that at least a subgroup of the schizophrenic population has a memory recall deficit (Joseph & Kunhikrishan, 1983; Kay, 1982). It is appreciated that intact information processing is essential and necessary for normal functioning (holding a job, thinking clearly, learning and remembering) and these disturbance occur in a wide variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders (Bruin, Ellenbroek, Luijtelaar, 2001; Sharma, 1999). In light of this information-processing deficit, consideration of various treatment approaches for its remediation is a relevant and appropriate topic in psychiatric rehabilitation is an area in need of further research.

References