The Many Meanings of Mahdi

Perhaps one of the most varied concepts throughout the life of Islam has been that of the Mahdi. Although never mentioned in the Qur�an, the term mahdi, which literally means "divinely guided one," has taken on multiple definitions to numerous Muslims of differing theology. In Shi�ism the Mahdi is a vital figure, identified with the Hidden Imam who will reappear and rule by divine prescription (Hinnells 198). Sunni Islam gives the term freely to periodic revivers of the faith, and also believes that near the end of the world, a Mahdi preceding Jesus will establish a final era of justice and plenty on the earth. The purpose of this paper is threefold: to explain the origins and development of the term mahdi, to distinguish the varieties of beliefs held about the Mahdi, and finally to discuss some of those who have claimed to be the Mahdi and the repercussions of their claim. The sources accumulated for use in this paper include religion and Islam encyclopedias and dictionaries, published by Oxford University Press and other reliable publishers.

The term mahdi is derived from the Arabic root h-d-y commonly used in the Qur�an in the meaning of divine guidance (Madelung 1231). Given as a title of honor without messianic significance, the term was used from the beginning of Islam to reference the Prophet and first four caliphs by the earliest Muslims (Kramer 18). God�s divine guidance for the faithful is a key aspect of the Qur�an, which is paralleled by God�s leading those who are unfaithful astray. "Thus surah 18:17 states: �He whom God guides, he alone is the rightly guided, but he whom [God] leads astray, for him you will find no patron as a guide to the right way�" (Crow 477).

During the Second Civil War, after the death of Mu�awiya, the term earned a new meaning, and began to be used for an expected ruler who would restore Islam to its original perfection (Madelung 1231). As Arabs who supported �Alid claims to legitimate leadership gradually realized that they needed a new religious leader to champion their cause against the Ummayads, this notion of the Mahdi as the future deliverer emerged (Crow, 478). The doctrine, and the early Hadith literature associated with it, probably originated with the Kaysaniyyah, who were followers of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, a descendant of �Ali by a woman of the Hanafi tribe ("al-Mahdi" 246). �Ali�s son attempted to overthrow the Umayyads, but "when their supremacy was restored, he accepted a governorship, and appears to have ended peacefully" (Margoliouth 336). The term mahdi, in its meaning of "the God-guided one," first appeared with the Shii revolt in Kufa of al-Mukhtar, who claimed that �Ali�s third son, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, was alive and well in his supposed tomb in Mt. Radwa, and that one day he would emerge to restore Islam (Crow, 478).

Much of the following Shii theories regarding the imam and the return of the Mahdi can attributed to al-Mukhtar and his aforementioned movement. The Shi�a embraced the idea of "revenge and concrete political expectations" (Crow 478). Belief in the coming of the Mahdi of the Family of the Prophet became a central aspect of the faith. As various individuals were identified as the Mahdi but failed to fulfill the expectations about him in their lifetime, their followers transferred their hopes to a second coming after an occultation (ghayba), much in the manner that al-Mukhtar described for Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah (Madelung 1235). For instance, after the Shii community split over who would be their sixth Imam, the two emerging groups eventually had disruptions of hereditary succession due to a mysterious death or disappearance of their Imam, which led to both groups declaring that their Hidden Imam would eventually return as the Mahdi (Esposito, 45).

Unlike the Shii belief in a Mahdi who is an incarnation of God returning from hiding, Sunni Islam gradually came to believe in a Mahdi that is merely a restorer of the faith that is chosen for his role (Kramer 19). Among the Umayyad caliphs, Sulayman seems to have been the first one to encourage the belief that he was the Mahdi who would restore justice after oppression had become widespread under his predecessors (Madelung 1231). Prophetic traditions (hadith) began circulating throughout Sunni Islam regarding the Mahdi, many of which contradicted each other and allowed for a large amount of interpretation. Basic assertions include: "he will appear when the world has reached its worst state of affairs; his reign will be a time of natural abundance, and he will spread justice, restore the faith, and defeat the enemies of Islam; miraculous signs will accompany his manifestation, and he will be generous and divide the wealth" (Kramer 19). A common theory was that the Mahdi should have the name Muhammad and that he should belong to the Prophet�s house, but not all demanded these requirements (Margoliouth 337). Sulayman�s successor, Umar II also became addressed as the Mahdi, due to his recognized piety, and much discussion arose after his death on whether or not he actually was (Madelung 1232).

Many Sunni identify the Mahdi with Jesus, who, according to the teachings of Islam, is supposed to appear before the Last Day (Quiyama) to defeat al-Dajjal, the false messiah, or Antichrist (Crow 471). Other traditions believe that their will be two Mahdi - one who reigns in Jerusalem for a certain number of years and is succeeded by caliphs of his family and another who would conquer Constantinople and surrender the rule to Jesus upon his descent from heaven (Madelung 1234). A particular Hadith, claims, "there is no Mahdi but Jesus, son of Mary" ("al-Mahdi" 246). Eventually, as the Mahdi�s eschatological role expanded, many actions that were once ascribed to Jesus for the end times were given to the Mahdi, including being an aid in the killing of the Dadjdal (Madelung 1234).

The contrast of importance of the Mahdi in Shii and Sunni Islam is astounding. Whereas much of Shii Islam is basically built around the idea that a great leader will return to save the true Muslims who have been wrongfully trodden upon, the majority of Sunii Islam is based on doctrines and creeds and though they await the arrival of the Mahdi, he is not the sole purpose of their religion. "In Spite of the support of the belief in the Mahdi by some prominent traditionists and Sufis, it never became an essential part of Sumni religious doctrine. Sunni creeds mention it but rarely. Many famous scholars like al-Ghazali avoided discussing the subject" (Madelung 1235).

Many have claimed to be the Mahdi since the origination of the term. Some have done so in order to facilitate a jihad for their specific cause, but many have appeared to actually believe that they were indeed the Mahdi. Of particular interest are the Druze of Lebanon who followed an eccentric Shi�ite missionary named al-Hakim. At his death or disappearance, a man named Hamza took over, who subsequently disappeared. Their followers, who now expect both men to return at a later date, are considered heretics by both Shii and Sunni (Esposito, 47). Another interesting sect is the Mahdawis, the followers of Sayyid Muhammad Mahdi. According to the group, their leader had the ability to perform miracles, and after his death the group maintained that he was the true Mahdi. "By their enemies they are styled Ghayr-Mahdis, i.e. those who do not believe in a Mahdi still to come; but the Mahdawis themselves apply this designation to other Muslims, charging them with failure to recognize the Mahdi who has already appeared" (Arnold 1230). Most notable of the self-proclaimed Mahdis is Muhammad �Ahmad al-Sayyid �Abd Allah, who in 1881 called for the overthrow of Turkish rule as well as a jihad against all "unbelievers" who opposed him (Kramer 21). He set up a theocratic state in Sudan in 1882, but was overthrown just six years later.

In conclusion, the Mahdi is an interesting concept that emerged out of the need for a reformer and has turned into a widely held religious belief. It is fascinating to study how the term has changed over time, in both Shii and Sunni Islam, from a great current leader into an eschatological figure. Many more "Mahdi" will present themselves, but Islam still waits for its true Mahdi.